Sections: Geography

The purpose of the lesson: to form students' understanding of the natural features of the country, the peoples inhabiting the country, their main occupations, to acquaint with the sights and history of individual cities in Germany, to develop memory, attention, a sense of patriotism.

1. Educational: to form a system of knowledge among students about the main features of the physical and geographical location, the population and its economic activities, the sights of the country's cities.
2. Developing: contribute to the formation of general educational listening skills; analyze, identify cause-and-effect relationships.
3. Develop the spatial imagination of the country under study and the creativity of students through the use of visual teaching aids.
4. Improve the development of student work skills with additional sources of geographic knowledge.
5. To develop the skills and abilities of schoolchildren with thematic maps of the atlas, a contour map.
6. Educational: to foster feelings of patriotism, internationalism, to promote the aesthetic education of students.

Lesson equipment: political and physical maps of Eurasia, atlases, educational pictures, additional literature, illustrations, textbook, contour maps, multimedia projector, disk “Encyclopedia. World capitals ”, photo albums, cards for reflection, flash drives of cities to attach on the map of“ distance travel ”.

Lesson type: learning new material.

Form of carrying out: lesson-lecture with elements of distance travel.

Lesson structure:

1. Organizing time.
2. Updating the basic knowledge and skills of students.
3. Motivation of educational and cognitive activities of students.
4. Learning new material.
5. Lesson summary.
6. Homework.
7. ... Reflection.

During the classes

I. Organizational moment.

II. Updating the basic knowledge and skills of students.

Conversation on questions.

1. Which region of countries does Germany belong to?
2. In which part of the mainland is the country located?
3. Name the capital of Germany.
4. What were the names of the two German states before the unification?

III. Motivation of educational and cognitive activities of students.

When getting to know the region Western Europe we found out that these countries are distinguished by highly developed economies and the most developed industry and agriculture are in Germany, France, Great Britain. In today's lesson, we will identify the features of the physical and geographical location, nature, population and its economic activities, we will identify the reasons for the changes that have occurred in the economic activities of the population of Germany. Let's get acquainted with the sights of the country's cities.

IV. Learning new material.

Plan

1. Physical and geographical position of the country.
2. Features of the relief. Minerals.
3. Climate.
4. Inland waters.
5. Natural areas.
6. The peoples inhabiting the country, their main occupations.
7. Distance travel through individual cities Germany.
   (Student Presentations - Leading Assignment)

Physical and geographical position of the country. Germany is located on the mainland Eurasia. This is one of the most highly developed countries in the world. In 1949, two German states, the FRG, were formed on the territory of Germany, and in 1990 they were united. In the east, the country borders on Poland, in the southeast with the Czech Republic, in the south with Austria, Switzerland, in the west with France, Luxembourg, Belgium, the Netherlands, in the north with Denmark. Washed by the waters of the North and Baltic Seas.

The work of students with a contour map, atlas.

Features of the relief. Minerals. The territory of Germany is stretched from north to south. In terms of natural conditions and their use by the population, it is heterogeneous. In the northern part of the country lies the North German Plain. Once upon a time, there was a sea on the territory of the North German Plain, which left strata of sedimentary deposits. The lowland relief was formed under the influence of glacier melt water. Small lakes of glacial origin are located between the moraine hills. As in our country, the last glacier was here relatively recently, about 10,000 years ago.

On the plains there are deposits of potassium salts, coal and brown coal. Subsidence observed on the North Sea coast crust... As a result, a significant part of the coast was under the threat of being flooded by the sea, so people shield the land from the advancing sea. Most of the country is occupied by a strip of medium-altitude mountains, which are covered with forests and are very picturesque. (Using the educational painting "Ore Mountains"). The rocks that make up the mountains are ancient, hard, crystalline, most often granites, gneisses, sandstones, limestones. The Ore Mountains live up to their name. They are quite rich in minerals - zinc, lead, silver, although now there are few ores left, they have long been mined. The Rhine Slate Mountains are located on the border with Belgium. They are named after the Rhine and are composed of shale. Livestock is grazed in mountain pastures, and rye, oats and potatoes are grown in the fields. In the picturesque mountain ranges, there are many nature reserves and places for summer recreation of the population. The Harz Mountains and the Thuringian Forest are also located in Germany. The southern part of Germany is occupied by the northern ridges of the Alps and their foothills. These are: Black Forest, Swabian Alb, Franconian Alb. The Northern Alps are not high, and only individual peaks rise up to 3000 m. Here is the highest point in Germany - Mount Zugspitze (2962 m). There are also nature reserves and national parks created here for the protection of nature.

Climate. Climatic conditions Germany are favorable for the population and the economy. The country is located in the temperate zone. The climate is temperate, maritime and transitional from maritime to continental. In mountainous regions, high-altitude climatic zonation is manifested. When the anticyclone spreads over Europe, bringing masses of cold air from Siberia, low temperatures are observed. For example, in the North German Plain, temperatures drop to –12 ° C. In summer, temperatures rise to the south, with the highest rates in the Upper Rhine Lowland. The average July temperature there is 19 ° C, and average temperature July in Berlin 18.5 ° C.

Average annual precipitation in the whole country is 600-700 mm. In the middle-altitude mountains on the windward west side it is much more, on the leeward east side (for example, in the Harz) - less, in the Alps - 1000-2000 mm and more.

Inland waters. The following large rivers flow in Germany: Rhine, Elbe, Weser, Danube and the Odra River flows on the border with Poland. The largest and most beautiful river is the Rhine. (Educational picture “Rhine in the middle course”) It is full of water and navigable all year round. Why is he full of water? "Rhine" means "pure" in translation. The Rhine, which flows in western Germany, is the country's main waterway. Flowing through Lake Constance, it serves as a natural border dividing Germany, Switzerland and France. In the foothills of the Alps, a large number of tributaries flow into the Rhine. Between Bingen and Bonn, this river cuts through a deep gorge in the Rhine Slate Mountains, then goes to the North German Plain and flows into the North Sea.

Natural areas. The following are located on the territory of the state natural areas- mixed forests and deciduous (Educational picture of the forest). There are few forests left. Do they borrow? part of the country's area and preserved mainly in the mountains. Man-made landscapes prevail. The following species of trees grow in mixed forests and deciduous forests: pine, spruce, oak, beech, hornbeam, birch and others.

The nature of soils and their diversity depend primarily on the local parent rocks and the nature of the vegetation cover. The soils of the mountains of Central Germany are very diverse. They are used for pastures or forests. On the lowlands and river terraces, the most fertile soils are widespread - chernozems, found east of the Harz and in the Thuringian basin, turning into brown forest soils. The best arable land is located here.

Most favorable conditions the region of Braunschweig - Hanover with chernozem-like soils stands out. The Rhine and Moselle valleys are a strip of vineyards, orchards, tobacco plantations, an area of ​​intensive suburban farming that supplies cities along the Rhine. The soils of the Alps differ depending on the altitude position of the terrain and the steepness of the slopes. Soil fertility has been significantly increased by land reclamation and regular fertilization.

The fauna of Germany is not very rich. The most common animals in Germany are squirrels, wild boars and foxes, red deer, roe deer, fallow deer, hares, rabbits, and mouse-like rodents. The marmot lives in alpine meadows. In the Elbe Valley - beavers, pine martens, wild cats.

Among the few reptiles, the viper stands out. Of the birds, sparrows, starlings, woodpeckers, blackbirds, cuckoos, finches, swallows, orioles, owls, magpies, harriers, pheasants, and partridges are found mainly. Bustards, an eagle owl, a stone eagle, a heron, a crane, and a stork have survived in the reserves. Wading birds - woodcocks, lapwings, snipe, white storks. The wet areas along the shores of the Baltic and North Seas are important for migratory birds in Europe, especially ducks, geese and wading birds. In coastal waters, there are herring, cod, flounder, sea bass; in the rivers of the country - carp, trout, catfish.

The peoples inhabiting the country, their main occupations. In terms of ethnic composition, the population of Germany is homogeneous. Almost 100% of the population is German. After the unification of the two states of the Federal Republic of Germany and the German Democratic Republic (in 1990), the population of the country is 82 million.

Compulsory education lasts from 6 to 18 years of age. After four years of Primary School, the student can choose between different schools, with different levels further education, between the Basic School, the real school (10 grades), the Gymnasium or the General School. In addition, there are special schools with specially trained teachers for difficult children.

According to the ethnic composition, the country is inhabited by: Turks, Italians, Greeks, Poles, Croats, Bosnians and Austrians. Almost 90% of the population lives in cities.

German culture and art. Germany is a land of great culture with powerful roots. The names of G. Schütz, J. S. Bach, R. Wagner, I. Brahms, F. Mendelssohn-Bartholdy and others - in music, A. Dürer, L. Cranach, T. Riemenschneider, E. L. Kirchner and others - in the visual arts, I.V. Goethe, F. Schiller, G. Heine, E.T.A. Hoffmann, T. Mann, etc. - in literature they are world-famous and represent phenomena not only German, but also world culture.

German national character. The common idea of ​​the Germans as hardworking, calculating, very diligent, punctual, and therefore prone to incredible chicanery and bureaucracy and devoid of a sense of humor is not entirely true. The Germans are neat and do not strive for sophistication in dress. Usually, their business and weekend toilets are not chic: they are modest and discreet. Germans are also undemanding to food. The Germans have incredible self-control: at the everyday level, conflicts are rarely resolved by force.

Economy. Germany is one of the developed countries in the world. Of the branches of the country's economy, industry plays the main role. Factories and plants manufacture a wide variety of products. Especially in the country they make a lot of cars. Engineering and chemical plants are famous all over the world. The Ruhr region stands out for its industrial development; the Ruhr coal basin is located here. Chemical products, cars, radio electronics products are exported in large quantities to other countries. What are the ports of Germany. Sea-going ships are being built in port cities.

Climatic conditions make it possible to grow a wide variety of crops. The main food crop is wheat; rye, oats, sugar beets and others are also grown. Livestock raising is well developed. Alpine meadows and pastures are used for grazing cattle. The population's agricultural activities affect the national cuisine, which is famous for its sausages and frankfurters.

Distance travel to selected cities of Germany.
(Student Presentations - Leading Assignment)

Guys, a few years ago I visited Germany, so I want to tell you about the sights and customs of this country. We will make a distance trip to selected cities in Germany. We will start our journey from the capital - Berlin. The city is located on the Spree River. The main square is Alexander Platz. It got its name in 1806 in honor of the Russian Tsar Alexander I (Appendix 1 1.15)... The center of Alexanderplatz is the building of the Stadt Berlin Hotel, 137 m high. The multi-storey Centrum department store is also located here. Another emblem of Berlin is a 365 m high TV tower. At a height of 200 m there is a “Telecafe”, the disc of which makes a full revolution around its axis in an hour. The city center is adorned with the Spree River. The Spree promenade is a traditional promenade (Appendix1 1.6 - 1.7)... The triangle between the Spree and the Kupfergraben canal is called very poetically in Berlin - Museum Island. Several of Berlin's largest museums are located on and around the island. The National Gallery is located next to the Spree. (Appendix 1 1.9).

The Pergamon Museum, located on the Island of Museums, houses a famous collection of works of ancient Greek and Roman art, art of Asia Minor: the gate of the goddess Ishtar, parts of temples, sculptures, tombstone reliefs. The famous Pergamon altar (Greece, 180 BC) brought glory to the museum, the reliefs of which depict the struggle of the gods and giants (Appendix 1 1.8)... On the Island of Museums, there is also the Bode Museum, Magnushaus, now owned by the University. Humboldt.

One of the most popular in Berlin is the Egyptian Museum. This is a gift from the Egyptian government to the German state for helping to save the works of art during the construction of the Aswan Dam. The museum's exposition includes household items, statues, burial bronze and terracotta figures, sarcophagi and mummies, papyrus scrolls - monuments of ancient Egyptian culture. The most valuable exhibit of the museum is the famous head of Nefertiti.

Unter den Linden with the Brandenburg Gate is the most famous street in the city. (Appendix 1 1.14). The street is decorated with lime trees planted in four rows. This street is also located: Arsenal, Opera House, State Library, University. Humboldt. The university was founded in 1810. Such scientists as Fichte, Hegel, Runge, Helmholtz, Einstein, Born taught there.

The Brandenburg Gate - the world famous symbol of Berlin - is the only remaining city gate of Berlin. The creators conceived them as the "Gate of the World". The gate was built by Langhans the Elder in 1788-1791. The width of the gate is 65.5 m. The gate is crowned with a quadriga - four horses pulling a chariot where the goddess of peace stands. Behind the Brandenburg Gate was a white wall between the West. and Vos. Berlin, 165 km long, which served as the border between the FRG and the GDR, in 1990 this wall was dismantled when the reunification of states took place.

Near the Brandenburg Gate is the building of the former German Reichstag, over which a red flag was hoisted as a sign of the victory of the Soviet Army over fascism in 1945 (Appendix 1 1.10).

There are many parks in Berlin, but one of them deserves a special mention. There is a famous monument to Soviet soldiers in Treptow Park. Above the entrance, in Russian and German, the words are carved: "Eternal glory to the heroes who fell for the freedom and independence of the Motherland." 5,000 Soviet soldiers were killed in the spring of 1945 in heavy battles near Berlin, in which they finally defeated Hitler's fascism.

This Monument was erected to the soldiers of our army who fell during the storming of Berlin. The sculptor is E.V. Vuchetich and architect - Ya.B. Belopolsky. Entering the park, a person is disconnected from city life and completely falls under the influence of the monument. This monument consists of three complexes. The first complex consists of two semicircular squares with entrance arches and alleys located perpendicular to the highways leading to the sculpture "Motherland - Mother". The image of "Motherland - Mother" expresses the deep sorrow of the Soviet people for their best sons. The growing birches bent towards the Mother, as if emphasizing her grief. The second complex is made up of a small square on which there is a monument to the Motherland, an alley - a ramp leading to the main entrance formed by two huge, lowered banners and figures of kneeling warriors in front of them (Appendix 1 1.1 - 1.2; 1.11 - 1.12).

"Do the Russians want wars?" - asks the poet E. Yevtushenko in one of his poems. Entering the grove of glory, many remember his words:

“Not only for my country
soldiers died in that war,
and so that the people of the whole earth
could calmly dream ”...

The main complex consists of a parterre of mass graves, sarcophagi and the main monument. The length of the parterre from the transverse axis of the banners to the transverse axis of the mound with the main monument is 270 meters. The main monument is represented by a 40-meter statue of a Soviet soldier with a child in his arms. The sword clenched with a strong hand symbolizes the power of our army, the chopped swastika at the soldier's feet is defeated Nazi fascism, and the child depicted by the sculptor on the warrior's hand personifies the liberation of mankind from the threat of fascist enslavement, the bright future of free peoples

Vii. Reflection.

Guys who liked the lesson, raise the red cards, those who were indifferent to the material being studied - raise the yellow cards, who were not interested - blue cards.

Literature:

1. Annemarie Lange "Berlin".
2. Monument to the Soviet Soldier - Liberator in Treptow Park - edited by Horst Buettner, Ursula Matz.
3. "I get to know the world" children's encyclopedia. Countries and peoples of Europe. M .: AST, 2002.
4. The temple is a monument of Russian glory in Leipzig. Author of the text: Priest Mikhail Turchin.
5. Leipzig - photo album.
6. Berlin - photo album.
7. Buchenwald ed. Annador Mite.
8. Overview of the Dresden Picture Gallery of the Old Masters. Auth. Harald Marke.
9. Textbook "Geography" 7 cl. under. ed. V.A. Korinskaya et al., 2005
10. Mussa Jalil "Bonfire over the cliff". 1989 year
11. Magazine "Geography in School" No. 2 1996
12. Disk “Encyclopedia. Capitals of the World ”.
13. Tierpark Berlin, Ausgabe, 1999

The population of the Swiss Confederation (the total population in 1964 was 5 million 860 thousand people) consists of several nationalities united by common destinies, economic and cultural ties. About 3 million 900 thousand people (68% of the population) are German-Swiss, or Swiss Germans. The main areas of their settlement are the north, northeast and center of the country (the cantons of Zurich, Unterwalden, Uri, Schwyz, Appenzell, Basel). In oral speech, they almost always use the Swiss dialect of German, and in writing - German literary language. Franco-Swiss (about 1 million people, over 18% of all inhabitants) inhabit the western and southwestern parts of the country (the cantons of Geneva, Vaud, Neuchâtel, Friborg). The French language established itself here only in the 19th century, replacing the Provencal dialects, which have survived to this day in places, mainly in the remote valleys of Wallis. Italo-Swiss live in the canton of Ticino (about 200 thousand people, 3.6% of the population). Italian is spoken in the canton of Ticino and in some districts belonging to other cantons. The official and literary language here is Italian, in everyday life the inhabitants speak its dialects. Small groups of Romans (50 thousand people, less than 1% of the population) in Graubünden still retained their language belonging to the Romance group. The two main groups of its dialects (according to some scholars, two languages) are the dialects of the upper and middle reaches of the Rhine (Rumansh) and Engadin (Ladin). The Rumansh dialect splits into three dialects - Surselvian, Sutselvi and Sutmiran; Ladin dialect includes Upper Engadin and Lower Engadin dialects. There is a small religious and fictional literature in dialects, magazines and newspapers are published.

All four languages ​​are recognized as state and equal, but the Romansh language, unlike others, does not have its own territory of distribution, which leads to the assimilation of the Romans.

About 10% of Switzerland's population is made up of foreigners. Among them are OsoG; I sew many Italians and Germans.

Natural conditions

Switzerland is located in Central Europe. Its area is 41.3 thousand square meters. km. The country borders on France, Italy, Germany, Austria and Liechtenstein. It is a mountainous country with a beautiful and distinctive nature. About 60% of its area, mainly in the southeast, is occupied by the Alpine mountains. Their average height is 1400 m. Some peaks - Dufour peak, Matterhorn - reach heights of more than 4500 m. The central part of the Alps is occupied by the Saint-Gotthard massif. Deep gorges, mountain valleys cut through high ridges and rocks. Trade routes from Italy to the countries of Central Europe passed through mountain passes (there are about 200 of them) for a long time. The most important of these are Saint Gotthard and Simplon. Due to frequent snow drifts and avalanches, the crossing over these passes threatened with great dangers. After the tunnels were built here, these passes have lost their significance. However, even now snowfalls often impede movement in these areas.

A long chain of the Jura Mountains stretches along the border with France. Their average height is 700-800 m. Numerous narrow valleys - haws, crossing mountains, have long been used as communication routes. Currently, there are highways and railways leading to France.

Between the Alps and the Jura lies the Swiss plateau - Mittelland, which occupies more than 30% of the country's surface. This hilly area with low ridges is the most populated and economically developed part of Switzerland.

In the Alps, near the Saint-Gotthard Pass, the Rhone, Rhine, Inn (Danube tributary), Ticino (Po tributary) originate. These rivers, very turbulent and teeming with waterfalls, represent powerful sources of electrical energy. Numerous lakes make the landscape especially picturesque. All large lakes are flowing. The most significant of them are Geneva, Constance, Zurich, Firwaldstaet, Neuchâtel.

Switzerland's climatic conditions are varied. So, on the coast of the Mittelland lakes, the climate is moderately warm (the average temperature in winter is 0 °, in summer -f-18 -419 °). In the valleys of the southern slope of the Alps, the climate is close to Mediterranean. In the Alps above 2000-3000 m there are eternal snows, the summers are cool, and "the winters are snowy, with strong winds and blizzards. Snow avalanches (" white death ") bring annual disasters, burying entire villages beneath them, littering fields and pastures with stones. To combat avalanches, protective forests are planted, splitters are placed behind the houses - stone wedge-shaped walls - or high embankments are made of stones so that the snow will slide down them without damaging the buildings.

The mountain valleys have a sunny, dry climate. There are numerous sanatoriums, boarding houses for the sick and tourists. The driest region of Switzerland - Middle Wallis - is artificially flooded. Dry air is brought by warm mountain winds - hair dryers. During the operation of the hair dryers, a night guard is placed, which makes sure that, in order to avoid a fire, no one lights a fire in the street.

Vegetation depends on the height of the terrain. Up to 1800-2000 m there is a strip of forests: at the bottom - deciduous (oak, beech, chestnuts, ash, elm), starting from a height of 1350 m - coniferous (pine, spruce, etc.). total area, occupied by forests, makes up about 25% of the entire territory of the country. Alpine meadows and shrubs spread above the forests and up to the boundaries of the eternal snow. Rich in the past animal world almost exterminated. Wild animals (bears, foxes, deer, etc.) have survived mainly in remote mountainous areas and reserves. The predominant type of soils on the plateaus is brown forest, and in the valleys, alluvial.

Switzerland is poor in minerals. Iron ore reserves are small. Its largest deposits are located near Basel. Bituminous and brown coal is available in small quantities; deposits of rock salt, phosphorites, peat and raw materials for building materials are of some importance.

BRIEF HISTORICAL OUTLINE

The territory of modern Switzerland, as shown by archaeological excavations, was inhabited as early as the Paleolithic. In the Neolithic and Eneolithic periods, the population of these places built pile settlements, the remains of which have been found in many Swiss lakes.

At the end of the 1st millennium BC. e. a significant part of the country (between the Rhine, Jura and the Alps) was occupied by Celtic tribes - the Helvetians, by whose name Switzerland is sometimes called Helvetia. To the east of them lived the Rheths. The question of their origin is still unclear. The development of the culture and economy of the local population was influenced by the conquest of the Swiss lands by the Romans (1st century BC).

Since the III century. n. e. Germanic tribes invaded here. The western part to the Aare river by the middle of the 5th century. occupied by the Burgundians, gradually merging with the Romanized Celtic population. Romance dialects developed here. It is now part of modern-day French Switzerland. Modern Italian Switzerland was ethnically and culturally linked with Lombardy and shared the same fate with it. The north and east of Switzerland was occupied by the Alemanni, they gradually penetrated into the interior of the country. This later led to the establishment of the German language, or, more precisely, its Swiss dialect, in the center and in the east of the country. In the isolated mountain valleys of Graubünden, the settlements of the Romanized Reths have survived.

The conquest of Switzerland by the Franks (late 5th - early 6th century) and its inclusion in the Frankish kingdom of Charlemagne (8th century) intensified the Germanization of its population.

Under the Treaty of Verdun (843), the eastern and central parts of Switzerland were annexed to the East Francois, and the western to the Lorraine kingdoms. At the beginning of the XI century. all the lands of Switzerland became part of the Holy Roman Empire.

Economic and cultural ties between parts of Switzerland were almost non-existent at that time. The southwest gravitated towards France, the southeast and north, including the Romansh regions, were closely associated with the German states, Ticino - with Lombardy. However, these areas, located on the outskirts of the German, French and Italian states, did not play a significant role in their history. Later, this contributed to the state separation of these areas.

The Swiss cities of Zurich, Bern, Basel played a large role in European trade. They received the rights of imperial cities.

There were almost no large estates based on corvee labor in Switzerland, with the exception of church farms. Usually feudal lords leased their land to peasants. In the mountainous cattle-breeding areas, a significant layer of free peasantry has remained, united in self-governing communities. Pastures, forests, water bodies remained the property of the communities. Communities, the so-called forest cantons, located around Lake Lucerne - Schwyz, Uri, Unterwalden - became the historical nucleus of the Swiss Union, later named after one of these cantons - Schwyz. In the XIII century. great importance acquired the Saint Gotthard Route passing through these cantons, connecting Italy through the Alps with other countries of Central Europe, which strengthened the economic role of the forest cantons. However, they soon had to face the claims of the large feudal lords of the Habsburgs, who in various ways seized many lands in Switzerland. The heavy taxation and administrative oppression of the Habsburgs laid an unusual burden on the inhabitants of the forest cantons. Attempts by the Habsburgs to seize the St. Gotthard road rallied the local population against them. On August 1, 1291, representatives of the cantons of Uri, Schwyz and Unterwalden entered into an "eternal" defensive alliance. The Treaty of 1291 is considered to be the beginning of the Swiss Union.

The formation of the Swiss Union, the successful struggle of the Swiss against the Habsburg oppression are captured in folk tales, in poetic legends about Wilhelm Tell and other fighters for Swiss independence.

During the XIV century. The Swiss Union won a number of victories over the Habsburgs (battles at Morgarten in 1315, Sempach in 1386, Nefels in 1388). Cities interested in the Saint Gotthard Trade Route and in defense against the feudal lords joined the Swiss Union to take advantage of its favorable economic position and military strength. After joining the Union of Lucerne, Zurich, Bern, Glarus and Zug at the end of the XIV century. the Union of eight old lands was formed. By the end of the 15th century. Switzerland, which already included 13 cantons, actually became an independent country, but formally it was part of the German Empire. Switzerland received official independence only through the Peace of Westphalia in 1648.

From the beginning of the XVI to late XVIII v. new members were not admitted to the confederation. However, the expansion of the territory of the Swiss Union continued through the seizure of lands, the position of which in the Union was subordinate.

The successful fight of the Swiss against the Habsburgs created glory for the Swiss infantry. European sovereigns from the XIII century. began to willingly hire the Swiss for their service. This played into the hands of the social leaders of the mountain cantons, who profited from the supply of military power. From the second half of the 15th century. Swiss mercenaries began to play an important role in the troops of European states. Professional mercenary activities carried away the most productive part of the population from the country and hindered the growth of national self-awareness.

The cantons, which constituted the historical core of Switzerland, played a leading role in the Union for a long time. However, in the XV century. their influence began to decline noticeably. The contradictions between them and the industrial cantons intensified. Added to this were the contradictions between the full-fledged cantons and the dependent lands, between the city and the rural district, which was under his yoke, between the patrician, the merchants and handicraft workshops in the cities. Aggravation of class contradictions at the beginning of the 16th century. poured into the movement of the Reformation. Protestant currents - Zwinglianism and Calvinism - came out with the demands of the "cheap church", against the magnificent Catholic rituals. The first of them had the center of Zurich and was associated with the name of the Zurich priest Ulrich Zwingli. The founder of the second was the Frenchman Jean Calvin. The center of Calvinism was Geneva, which was not part of Switzerland at that time. These movements, especially Calvinism, were of great importance for the development of the reform movement in other European countries. Many leaders of the Reformation paid attention to the issues of the origin of the Swiss state, made attempts to substantiate its unity from an ethnic point of view.

The Reformation divided the Swiss Union. Most of the cantons, including the forest cantons, remained Catholic. Four cantons, whose centers were the largest cities of Zurich, Basel, Bern and Schaffhausen, adopted Protestantism. Protestants from other countries began to come here, fleeing persecution. They brought new branches of handicrafts to Switzerland - dressing of silk, velvet, etc. In the 17th-18th centuries. the manufacturing industry developed intensively in the form of a "scattered manufacture". The production of cotton fabrics, watches, jewelry, etc. has developed.

After the conquest of Switzerland by France in 1798, it was declared a single "Helvetic" republic. The central government was created here for the first time.

In 1815, the Congress of Vienna recognized the existence of Switzerland as a union of 22 cantons (with the addition of three new cantons - Geneva, Wallis and Neuchâtel) and declared it a permanently neutral state. The laws on the centralization of the country were abolished. The cantons could conclude independent agreements with foreign states. The role of the reactionary layers of the Catholic clergy increased in the country, especially in the forest cantons. These cantons, representing the least economically developed part of Switzerland, were supporters of the decentralization of the country and the preservation of the independence of individual cantons.

F. Engels in his work "The Civil War in Switzerland" writes about this old Switzerland: "... it defended its isolation from the rest of the world, its local customs, fashions, prejudices, all its local narrow-mindedness and isolation" 1. The enmity between the advanced Protestant cantons (Geneva, Basel, Zurich, Neuchâtel, Vaud, etc.) and the seven backward Catholic cantons (Uri, Schwyz, Zug, Wallis, Unterwalden, Lucerne, Friborg), which entered into an alliance (Sonderbund), ended civil war 1847 The cantonal governments of Sonderbund are overthrown; the Jesuits, who had previously had great influence, were expelled from Switzerland, most of the church property was confiscated by the state, and civil education was introduced instead of religious education.

The Constitution of 1848 was a notable step forward towards the centralization of the country. In it, for the first time, the population of Switzerland was called the Swiss nation. The Constitution of 1874 (which is still in effect with amendments), as well as a number of laws issued at the beginning of the XX century. (centralization of military affairs, the introduction of a single civil code etc.), strengthened the central authority and limited the rights of the cantons.

The "eternal neutrality" of Switzerland, officially recognized by the Vienna Congress, was later repeatedly reaffirmed at international conferences. For several centuries the country has not taken part in wars. Neutral democratic Switzerland in the 18th-20th centuries served as a refuge for political emigrants, including Russian revolutionaries. The Russian section of the First International and the Emancipation of Labor group (1883) were founded in Switzerland. Lenin lived in exile in Geneva, Zurich and Bern.

After the First World War, the reactionary character of the Swiss bourgeoisie increased. The Swiss government took a hostile position towards the Soviet state. At the present time in Switzerland are the centers of various reactionary organizations.

On the other hand, as a neutral state, Switzerland naturally became the center of international meetings. Very often the cities of Switzerland, especially Geneva, are chosen as a place for convening international conferences and exhibitions. It was the seat of the League of Nations, and currently the UN European Office works here, to which, however, Switzerland refused to join, considering it incompatible with neutrality (it is only a member of the UN economic and cultural organizations).

Political system

Switzerland is a bourgeois federal republic - a confederation of 22 cantons, of which three are each divided into two independent semi-cantons. Most of today's cantons are historical areas. Their boundaries often do not coincide with the linguistic ones. Thus, the cantons of Bern, Solothurn, Wallis have a mixed French-German-speaking population, and the canton of Graubünden has a Romance, Italian and German population. To this day, the Swiss have retained a sense of belonging to a particular canton. Although according to the federal constitution, the cantons are considered sovereign states with their own governments and constitutions, they do not have the right to secede from the Swiss Union. The highest authority in Switzerland is the Federal Assembly. It consists of two chambers - the National Council and the Council of Cantons. Exercising the highest executive power! government - A seven-member Federal Council headed by a president. Each of the members of the council holds the presidency for a period of one year. The age limit for participation in elections is 20 years. Women have voting rights only in the cantons of Geneva, Vaud and Neuchâtel. Attempts by the progressive forces of Switzerland to achieve electoral rights for all women are faced with stubborn resistance from the reaction. The Catholic-Conservative Party, which enjoys great influence among the petty burghers and peasants of the Catholic regions, is especially vigorous in its struggle against the granting of suffrage to women.

In several Swiss cantons and semi-cantons (Glarus, Nidwalden, Obwalden, Innerroden and Auserrhoden), local authority (election of officials, legislative activity) belongs Landsgemeinde- a meeting of all adult men. These gatherings take place in the open air every year in late April or early May. Apologists for Swiss democracy in every possible way idealize this ancient institution, emphasizing its supposedly true democracy. In reality, these meetings are run by large landowners, clerics, using this institution for their own purposes. Bourgeois parties, possessing various means of pressure on voters, also turn the so-called popular initiative in favor of the bourgeoisie, that is, the right to amend the constitution at the request of a certain number of voters by way of a referendum.

Population

Population growth dynamics from mid. 1950s a fairly active increase occurred by 46% (in 1950 - 5 million people). At the same time, the annual growth reaches 2.4 ‰ (2002). The net inflow of immigrants is 1.37 ‰. Fertility 9.84 ‰

Mortality 8.79 ‰

Child mortality 4.42 per 1000 newborns.

The average life expectancy is 79.86 years, incl. men 76.98 years old, women 82.89 years old (2002). The age structure of the population: 0-14 years --16.8%, 15-64 years - 67.7%, 65 years and older - 15.5%. The average ratio of men and women is 0.97, however, at the age of 65 and over, women predominate - 0.69.

The educational level of the population is high. Over the age of 15, 99% of the country's population can read and write. Ethnic composition: Germans (65%), French (18%), Italians (10%) and Romansh (1%). Languages ​​spoken: German-Swiss (High German) 63.7%, French-Swiss (Provencal French) 19.2%, Italian-Swiss (Lombard Italian) 7.6%, Romansh (Graubund dialect of the romanized Rhine tribes) - 0.6%.

The culture

Switzerland's geographical location has affected its culture as well. On the territory of this relatively small country, there are four official languages. In the western part of the country, French is spoken, and naturally the culture of this region is greatly influenced by the proximity of France. In the north of Switzerland, German is spoken. Names of cities, streets, folk customs, all of this indicates the proximity of Germany. The same is happening in the south, on the border with Italy. Only a small part of the population speaks the Romansh language and it does not greatly affect the general picture of the culture of this mountainous country. The paradox of the Swiss population is that it is easier for a resident of the western regions to understand a resident of Paris than his compatriot from the northern or southern cantons. Writing and teaching in schools is carried out in the language spoken in the region. All this is not surprising, since the general history of the Swiss cantons is only two hundred years old. Despite this, there is much in the culture of Switzerland that unites this country.

Material and spiritual culture has many local variations depending on ethnic and geographic conditions.

Sports competitions are popular - shooting, skiing. Folk art is well developed. Famous legends about Wilhelm Tell. Various rattles, bells, tambourines, etc. are characteristic. The main occupations are arable farming, mountain cattle breeding, trade in livestock and livestock products. Used as guides and porters in high-altitude expeditions. Crafts - weaving, weaving, wood carving. Settlement types: winter - stone or wooden two-storey houses, summer - from stone slabs... The family is small.

Swiss cuisine

Swiss cuisine is distinguished, on the one hand, by regional diversity associated with both the different ethnic composition of the population and the influence of the neighboring regions of Italy, France, Germany and Austria, and on the other hand, by a large number of dishes associated with traditional farming.

An important part of Swiss cuisine is cheese and cheese-based dishes. The most famous Swiss cheeses outside Switzerland are Gruyeres, Emmental and Appenzellern.

From French-speaking Romandy originate cheese fondue (canton Vaud) and raclette (canton Valais), which became popular throughout Switzerland. Valais is also home to the cholera pie made from potatoes, apples and cheese, the recipe for which was developed during the cholera epidemic.

Ticino's cuisine is similar to that of neighboring Italian Lombardy. The most famous dishes are polenta and saffron risotto.

Alpine pasta is considered a famous dish - this is a somewhat unusual combination of pasta and potatoes, seasoned with sour cream and grated cheese, and sprinkled with crispy fried onions on top.

Swiss wines, surprising in their variety, offer a rich palette of flavors and fresh aromas.

Traditional occupations are: dairy farming, cheese production, tkat production.

Switzerland is a unique country with a long history and culture. Those who have ever been there, of course, got a lot of impressions from the amazing clean nature, unique mountain landscapes, the surrounding cleanliness and the standard of living of people. Of course, many people are also interested in the population in Switzerland, because within a small country there are four groups of people who, as has developed historically, communicate in absolutely different languages.

The history of the formation of the state and the emergence of nationalities

The date of the formation of Switzerland is considered to be the day of its independence, which was proclaimed at the end of the 13th century and is celebrated every year on August 1. The country was originally a confederation until the 17th century. Historically, this was justified by the fact that representatives of four peoples, speaking different languages, represented by two different linguistic groups: Germanic and Romance, participated in the formation of the country.

To this day, the Swiss Confederation remains one of the official names of the country. Later, with the formation and strengthening of statehood, the form of the device was changed to the Federation, which existed until the 19th century. Later, the federal was transformed into a federal charter. Until now, when communicating with the local population, it is rare to hear from them that they are Swiss. Rather, they will say that they are Lugansk, Zurich, Bernese, Geneva, because as many cities and cantons are in the country, so many different nationalities represent them.

What is the population in Switzerland

Historically, four main peoples live together in Switzerland, who use their spoken languages... This:

Franco-Swiss mostly speak French;

German-Swiss, speaking German with their own dialect, represent the largest part of the population of Switzerland;

Italian Swiss, speak Italian;

Retro Romance, otherwise called Romance or Ladin, use

German remains the dominant language, as the population of Switzerland is 65% German speakers

Here are some statistics. In 2014, the population of Switzerland was 8,137,600 residents, including both Swiss and foreigners who recently received the citizenship of the country or have For comparison: back in the mid-60s of the last century, the population of the state was only a little more than 5 million people. The natural ratio is approximately 1.1, which is the average for Europe. The population of Switzerland is increasing mainly due to the influx of immigrants.

"Restigraben" - the invisible border

More recently, a definition of Rostigraberi appeared in the media - this is the name of the line (conditional border) that stretches from the north of Switzerland to the very south of the country. This concept has conditionally divided the population in Switzerland into:

West (French speaking);

East (speaking German).

The name "restigraben" itself means "a moat filled with fried potatoes". Resti is one of the most popular local dishes in Bern. It represents the french fries so beloved by the Germans. And this dish is directly associated with the German-Swiss, who in the eyes of the rest of the inhabitants look gloomy and laconic, but practical in all respects. It is about these people that the eastern population of Switzerland says that they can be relied on in serious matters at any moment.

An invisible border that runs through the entire country gave the name to the peoples living in the east and west. For example, the Franco-Swiss call their neighbors "zasarintsy", that is, people living on the other side of the Sarin River. In turn, the eastern population of Switzerland - the Germans - name the river in their own way - Zaane.

Great people of a small country

Despite the fact that the territory of Switzerland is relatively small, four nationalities coexist in it at once, who communicate in different languages. Moreover, each of them still has its own special dialect.

Despite this, the country's population is very close-knit, and the main distinctive feature The Swiss are their hard work. Nature did not give the inhabitants of this region a large number resources, not endowed with huge spaces and fields. Therefore, the population of Switzerland has its own special, strong, tenacious character and resourcefulness.

The words "cheese", "watches", "chocolate bars" are associated with this particular country. But the state is famous not only for this. Such outstanding people were born and worked on its territory as:

Albert Einstein.

Carl Jung.

Jean Jacques Rousseau.

Jean Calvin and many others famous personalities, who made their huge contribution to the development of science, art and simply to the formation of human society.

Switzerland has a population of over 7 million.

National composition:

• Germans;
• French people;
• Italians;
• other nations (citizens of the EU and countries of the former Yugoslavia).

The indigenous peoples of Switzerland are German-Swiss (they live in the central and eastern cantons of the country, and use upper German dialects in their speech), Italo-Swiss (they settled in the southern cantons and speak Italian), Romans (their habitat is in the highlands the canton of Graubünden, and the languages ​​of communication are Romansh, German and Italian) and the Franco-Swiss (they settled the western cantons and use South French dialects in speech).

180 people live per 1 sq. Km, but the most populated areas are the Swiss plateau and the north-east of the country (population density is 250 people per 1 sq. Km), and the mountainous, eastern, central and southern parts of Switzerland are the least populated (with the exception of the canton Tessin) - 20-50 people live here per 1 sq. Km.

State languages ​​- German, Italian, Romansh, French.

Major cities: Zurich, Bern, Geneva, Basel, Lausanne, Lucerne, Davos, Friborg.

The inhabitants of Switzerland profess Catholicism, Protestantism, Orthodoxy.

Life span

The Swiss are considered one of the longest-living nations in the world, with an average life expectancy of 82 years (males live on average up to 81 years, and females up to 85 years).

Excellent results are largely due to the fact that the state deducts $ 5600 per person per year for healthcare (this is higher than the average for Europe).

The Swiss are the record holders for low level obesity: only 8% of people in the country are overweight. In addition, in Switzerland significantly less people die from cancer and cerebrovascular diseases than in other countries. But, nevertheless, Switzerland is a drinking and smoking country (there are 1722 cigarettes per inhabitant per year).

Traditions and customs of the inhabitants of Switzerland

The Swiss honor ancient traditions: they love to take part in competitions of ancient costumes, in competitions among singers and shooters, and also to watch the colorful processions of the standard bearers.

Cheese is of particular importance in Switzerland - it is not only a tradition, but also the soul of the country: 600 cheese dairies have been opened here, which produce 450 types of cheese (real Alpine cheese is made in the mountains in summer time).

Summer is a special time in Switzerland: at this time, every village, town, village and town celebrate its own special holidays. For example, the Francophone part of Switzerland celebrates Fete de Vendanges - the holiday is accompanied by grateful processions in honor of the harvested grape harvest.

If the Swiss invites you to visit, be punctual and present the hosts of the house with a small present.