Introduction

The concept of "publishing" has several meanings, the main of which (the most general) is given in the encyclopedic dictionary of bibliology: Publishing is a branch of culture and production associated with the preparation, publication and distribution of books, magazines, newspapers and other types of printed matter.

However, the term "publishing" can be used in both broad and narrow meanings, both in practical and theoretical senses. Concepts that are close in content, one way or another, incorporating many aspects of publishing - "Book Science", "Book Science", "Bibliology", "Bookness".

The main types of print media are: book, newspaper, magazine. At the same time, the book is a non-periodical publication, and the newspaper and magazine are periodicals. Each type of printed matter has its own history, development principles, place in society and features of production technology. The most important, ancient and specific product of publishing activity is undoubtedly the book.

The main feature of a book as a product of human activity is the duality of its nature: on the one hand, it is a product of spiritual culture, and on the other, production technology. On the one hand, the book contains the result of the creative process, embodied in some form of knowledge intended for social development, on the other hand, it is a material object, a thing made at an enterprise, on a conveyor belt, which has physical parameters - weight, volume, density, etc. - and commercial value.

The term "book" comes from the Greek word biblio. (To be precise, historically the use developed in plural- "books"). In historical retrospect, this concept included three meanings: 1) the work as a reflection of the content; 2) “sheets of paper of different sizes, bound in the spine, in a cover or binding” as a reflection of the form (an expression from the current terminological standard) and 3) parts, sections of a larger work, as a reflection of the structure (for example, “Books of the Old Testament). The latter meaning has lost over time, and there are two hypostases of the book as the phenomena indicated above. It is characteristic that since ancient times - in different eras, in different countries, among different peoples and in the most different cultures - the meaning of the term "book" completely coincides. This also applies to Ancient Greece, and to Ancient Rome, and to the Jewish, and to the Arab, and to the Slavic cultures.

The concept of "book", the development of the book business

In scientific, reference, fiction, literature, there are many definitions of the book, but until now. there is no single universally accepted scientific definition of time. Three approaches to the definition of the concept: according to the material and external form, according to the content and spirit. entities; on composite, taking into account both categories (it is he who is preferred by bibliologists). There are now about 300 definitions. A book is a work of writing or printing that has any readable sign form (alphabetic, digital, musical), fixed in any material (stone, clay, leather, papyrus, paper, etc.), simultaneously performing a number of public functions and addressed real or abstract reader.

In the era of socialist society, the book business was characterized in the encyclopedic dictionary as "a system of interacting and solving common tasks of the branches of culture and national economy associated with the creation and production of books, their distribution and use. Includes publishing, printing industry, book trade, library and bibliographic a business". In the publication of the encyclopedic dictionary, Nemirovsky cites the conflicting opinions of leading bibliologists on the composition of the concept of "book business": Badger included editorial and publishing, book design, bibliography, print statistics, library and bookselling in the book business; Dinerstein only activities for the production and distribution of books; Belovitskaya is a way of existence, i.e. process and transitory intermediate result of the existence of a book in society.

Writing is a system of signs that anchors a language. The earliest times human memory was the only means of preserving and transmitting social experience, information about events and people. If you flip through the history of world literature, it turns out that all peoples in one way or another have passed the period of "oral book". The immortal poems The Iliad and The Odyssey are known to have been recorded in Athens on scrolls around 510 BC. Prior to that, over the centuries, poems were circulated orally. It was difficult to memorize lines of thousands, and primitive storytellers used ribbons or knots to help them. Among the Indians of South America, such a thing was called quipu (kipu) - nodular writing (a little later, various kinds of notches, notes, knots, and finally, drawings). Images in caves and on rocks, made by the hand of a primitive man, reflect his impressions of the world around him, life, nature. These are the beginnings of art, but at the same time they are the beginnings of writing; here for the first time a person expressed his thought in an image.

Basic writing systems.

Pictography is a drawing (one image, one thought). The languages ​​of many ancient peoples (Sumerians, Egyptians, Chinese, Indians, Mayans) went through this stage before they acquired writing. With the emergence of the slave system, the pictographic record no longer met the needs of culture. It is gradually transformed into an ideographic letter, in which each sign expressed separate concepts, ideas, or could develop, clarify the meaning of other signs. Over time, syllabic writing was established in Babylonian, Assyrian, Hittite and other languages, where signs predominated, conveying not a word, but a syllable. In our time, the languages ​​of the most cultured peoples (Chinese, Japanese) use an ideographic writing system. There was also a hieroglyphic writing system. The word "hieroglyph" means "carving of the priests." Simplification of signs - "graphemes" - led to the creation of the so-called hieratic (clerical), and then demotic (folk) writing, in which the number of graphemes was significantly reduced. In Sumer, Babylonia, Assyria, they wrote in cuneiform. The idea of ​​letter writing, sharply democratizing the entire written book culture, tore it out from under the monopoly power of the priests. Ugaritic writing dates from historians to the 14th century BC. - the earliest alphabetic alphabet. On the basis of the ancient Egyptian demotic handwriting, universal in use, the ancient Greek alphabet ("aleph" - "beta") arose, which became the ancestor of all the alphabets of the world. From the tribes of Canaan to the Arabian Peninsula, the universal Arabic alphabet leaked. Then the Aramaic (Phoenician) alphabet appeared in the vastness of Mongolia and Manchuria. In ancient India, the spread of Buddhism contributed to the invention of a peculiar alphanumeric alphabet - Devanagari.

Ancient Greek, Etruscan, Latin languages ​​already had alphabets of 24 letters.

In the middle of the 4th century A.D. Mesrop Mashtots (362-440) developed the Armenian alphabet, which is still used today. Byzantine monks of St. Cyril and St. Methodius in 863 invented the alphabet for the Slavic languages.

Currently, the peoples of the world use 8000 alphabets and their variants, adapted to different languages ​​and dialects. The most common alphabets are Latin-based (26 letters).

Book making in the ancient world

The uprising of slaves, the crisis and the fall of the slave system led to the impoverishment of cultural centers and to the destruction of a mass of books. The Arab culture also flourished, spreading from the Indus to the Pyrenees. The Arabs gave Europe a cheap writing material - paper. This led to an increase in the production of manuscripts. In ancient China, the production of bamboo books was established. Finely planed bamboo plates were fastened together with metal staples in the form of a modern sliding window curtains... On such a curtain book, as well as on the silk invented later, the Chinese painted their hieroglyphs with brushes, using ink for this. Originally, the Chinese also made paper from bamboo mass. In European countries, the ancestors of the Germans and Slavs, if they happened to receive a Greco-Roman education, satisfied their need for books with the manuscripts of the Greeks and Romans. Their numerous compatriots, as the etymology of the words denoting a book ("biblio", "liber", "libro") shows, were satisfied with notes or serifs on wooden plates. Most affordable material there was birch bark for writing. Birch bark books were most widespread among the ancient Slavs, as well as among the peoples of North India. The first birch bark books in India date back to the 9th century AD.

Books and libraries of antiquity

The most ancient material for books was probably clay and its derivatives (shards, ceramics). Even the Sumerians and Ekkadians sculpted flat bricks-tablets and wrote on them with three-edged sticks, squeezing out wedge-shaped signs. The tablets were dried in the sun or burned in a fire. Then the ready-made tablets of the same content were laid in a certain order in wooden box- it turned out to be a clay cuneiform book. Its advantages were cheapness, simplicity, and availability. The Cuneiform Library established by King Assurbanipal (VII century BC) contained more than 20,000 clay books, each of which bore a cuneiform stamp: "The Palace of the King of Kings."

The papyrus reed (Egypt, Nile) gave the possibility of the emergence and flowering of the greatest civilization of the Ancient World. Papyrus was fragile, so papyrus ribbons were glued or stitched into scrolls, which were placed in special cases - capsules or capsules, a scroll was obtained - the first known form of a book in world civilization. The century of the papyrus book ended only in the X-XI centuries A.D., after Muslim conquest of Egypt. Almost all government and local government, colleges of priests, assemblies of citizens and wealthy people considered it prestigious to have a good library. Libraries were set up at public baths, where wealthy slave owners spent their time reading books. Specially trained slave readers, in Latin they were called "lecturers", and in Greek "deacons", read aloud to everyone. The richest book collection of antiquity was the Alexandrian library of the Ptolemaic kings (700,000 papyrus scrolls). Along with papyrus, material made from the skins of young animals - calves, goats, sheep, rabbits - also became widespread. It was named parchment, after the name of the place where this method was invented. The flourishing of the parchment book begins with the onset of the Christian era. It was from parchment that the now dominant universal form of the book was born - the codex, or book block. The entrepreneur-slave owner, engaged in the reproduction and sale of handwritten books, was called in Greek "bibliopolis" - a book distributor, and in Latin "librarian" - a scribe. Ancient writers left us with a lot of evidence that in the era of imperial Rome it was possible to reproduce 50-100 copies of a work at the same time by repeated correspondence. There were twenty-eight public libraries in Rome.

Book in the Middle Ages.

The main writing material in the Middle Ages was parchment. At an early stage, it was sometimes painted, usually purple, painted in gold or silver. The practice of painting parchment ceased to be practiced only in the 13th century.

In the early Middle Ages, the main centers of both production and consumption of parchment were monasteries, and from the XIII century. the city-dwellers-artisans took up the production of parchment. They created independent parchment workshops. But still, he was constantly lacking. That is why the so-called palimpsests have become widespread - parchments from which the original text was erased, scraped off, and then a new one was written. The tool for writing, as in antiquity, was the kalam and the bird's feather - at first equally, and then the scribes switched mainly to bird feathers.

A sharp silver lead or lead pencil was used to line the sheet. In 1125, graphite was first used for this.

The first stage of making a book is the dressing of parchment, then the second stage is ruling (using a compass, a ruler and a slate lead). And only after that the calligrapher-scribe started to work. It was during the Middle Ages that the main types of writing arose that form the basis of modern Latin and Gothic scripts. This is, firstly, the Carolingian minuscule (lowercase handwriting). The book was designed not by the calligrapher himself, but by other specialists - miniators, rubrics, portholes. At first, monks were the masters of decoration, but from the XIII-XIV centuries. more and more lay artists began to do this. book print edition letter

The book did not have a title or title page. The text began with the words: "Incipit liber" ("The book begins") or without them at all. The output was sometimes given at the end of the book, in the so-called colophon. ...

The Middle Ages were characterized by a codex - a book block. The serial numbers of the notebook were called Custodes (from the Latin custos - guardian). Custodians replaced pagination, which was not practiced in the early medieval manuscript book - a continuous sequential numbering of pages. At the end of each sheet, it was customary to write down the first word of the next sheet - this was called an advertiser (in printed books of the 15th-16th centuries, what was previously called a Custodian was called a signature, and an advertiser was called a Custodian).

The notebooks prepared for binding were stitched into a block on a manual binding machine. Binding covers were attached to the ends of the cords on the top and bottom notebooks.

O. A. Starkovskaya

BOOKING HISTORY

Study guide

For students studying in the direction

42.03.03 Publishing

St. Petersburg

Saint Petersburg State University of Industrial Technologies and Design

Introduction …………………………………………………………………………………………………… .. ……… .3

Topic 1. Fundamentals of the history of book business …………………………………………………………… .4

Topic 2. The emergence and development of writing ………………………………………………………… ..6

Topic 3. Book in the Ancient World …………………………………………………………………………… 9

Topic 4. Book in the Ancient World …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

Topic 5. Book business in medieval Europe ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 13

Topic 6. Manuscript book of Ancient Russia ………………………………………………………………. 16

Topic 7. European book of the 15th century. The invention of book printing ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 18

Topic 8. The emergence of book printing in Russia. Ivan Fedorov ………………… .... 21

Topic 9. Development of book business in Europe and Russia in the XVI-XVII centuries .. ………………………. 23

Topic 10. Book business in the VIII century. ……………………………………………………………………. …… 27

Topic 11. Book business in the XIX century. ………………………………………………………………………….…. thirty

Topic 12. Book business in the XX century. ……………………………………………………………………………… 34

INTRODUCTION

This methodological manual is addressed to students of the direction 42.03.03 "Publishing" and contains short lecture notes on the subject: "The history of book business", covering the period from ancient times to the end of the XX century, questions for self-control and discussion during practical classes, assignments and short methodological recommendations for independent extracurricular work of students.

Brief lecture notes introduce students to a whole range of issues that consider the history of the book, starting with the prerequisites for the birth and formation of writing, the evolution of writing material. Special attention is also paid here to the issues of the regularity of the emergence of books (first handwritten, and then - printed) and the development of the book industry as a result of the influence of certain historical, socio-cultural, religious and technological factors. Students will also get acquainted with the peculiarities of the creation and production of a book at different stages of its history: several tasks for practical exercises are devoted to the development of individual elements of the book. In general, most of the lectures are aimed at studying the activities of handwritten book workshops, and later - typographers, publishers, publishing houses, libraries and booksellers in individual countries in different periods according to the accepted chronology from ancient times to the end of the 20th century.

The main, historical part of the manual is preceded by an introduction to the subject, where the concepts of "book" and "book business" are considered, the structure of book business is determined, and the main functions of the book are highlighted.

For better assimilation of the educational material, all information is divided into separate topics in chronological order. This is facilitated by the list of questions for self-control, given at the end of each summary of the lecture. In addition to questions for self-examination of students' knowledge, each thematic section contains a list of tasks and questions for practical exercises; some of these tasks can be performed by students independently, out of class: individually or in groups. Brief methodological explanations regarding the peculiarities of performing practical tasks are given where necessary.

Each thematic section ends with a list of recommended literature that students can use in preparation for practical classes, as well as for writing reports and abstracts.

TOPIC 1. BASICS OF THE HISTORY OF BOOKING

The concept of "book" and "book business". The structure of the book business. Functions of the book. Book history as a scientific discipline.

Today in world science there is no generally accepted definition of the concept of "book". This is partly due to the fact that it is very difficult to achieve an unambiguous understanding of the essence of a book, because a book is a phenomenon of both a spiritual and a material order. It is no coincidence that the historical definitions of the book viewed it either from the point of view of material nature, or as a product of the author's intellectual work. The Encyclopedia "Kniga" (1999) defines this concept as follows: "the most important historically established form of consolidation and transmission in time and space of diverse information in the form of text and (or) illustrative material."

Due to the ambiguity of the interpretation of the concept of "book", there is also a number of scientific views on its functions. Of course, the significance of the book for the development of civilization is enormous, and no one doubts this fact. The different points of view of scientists on the role played by the book in society are also fully justified. Let's list the main functions of the book, allocated by researchers: informational, communicative, cognitive, educational, aesthetic, ideological. It is easy to see that all of the listed functions, with the exception of the first, informational, are, in fact, projections of one - communicative, and are manifested only when the book interacts with the reader.

Book business - the "life cycle of a book" - a system of interrelated branches that provide the material embodiment of the book and its delivery to the reader. The structure of the book business can be distinguished: publishing, printing, book trade, librarianship and bibliography.

The book, being the most complex cultural, historical, material, informational phenomenon, does not exist by itself, but in the context of human history, culture, it develops along with the development of human knowledge, being both a product and an instrument of progress. That is why the history of books and books as an independent scientific discipline is closely connected with other branches of historical and cultural scientific knowledge: source study, history of literature and journalism, history of world culture, social and economic history, history of philosophy, history of technology, etc. Its main task is to study the emergence and formation of written forms of various kinds of literary works, their appearance and distribution in handwritten, printed and electronic form, the peculiarities of the development of all branches of the book business at different historical stages. Book historians study not only the activities of individual centers for the production of handwritten books, scribes, typographers, publishers and publishing houses, bookselling companies, but also the evolution of the form of the book, changes in individual elements of its design. The study of legislation on the press and censorship, the history of reading and much more is also of great interest.

Questions for self-control:

1. What does book history study?

2. With what sciences is the history of the book business connected?

3. Give a definition to the concept of "book business".

4. What are the functions of the book.

5. What is the main difficulty in defining the concept of "book"?

Tasks for the practical lesson:

1. Prepare a presentation on one of the selected topics:

a. " Life cycle books ”(describe in detail each section of the cycle, accompanying it, if possible, with illustrations, and also, based on your personal experience, indicate the maximum number of professions, representatives of which, in your opinion, take part in the creation and distribution of the book);

b. "The history of book business as a science" (describe in detail what aspects the history of book business studies, indicate with which branches of scientific knowledge the history of book business is connected).

2. Find in the literature and cite 10 aphorisms-definitions of the book given by writers, scientists, public figures.

1. Belovitskaya A.A. Bibliology. General bibliology / A.A. Belovitskaya. - Moscow: MGUP, 2007 .-- 391 p.

2. Book: encyclopedia. - Moscow: Big Russian encyclopedia., 1999 - 799 p.

3. McLuhan M. Gutenberg Galaxy. Formation of a typist / M. McLuhan. - St. Petersburg: Acad. project. 2005 .-- 496 p.

4. Nemirovsky E.L. Big book about the book / E.L. Nemirovsky. - Moscow: Time, 2010 .-- 1088 p.

1. The concept of "book" and "book business"

In the scientific, reference, artistic, literature, there are many definite books, but up to the present. time there is no single generally accepted scientific definition. Three approaches to the definition of the concept: according to the material and external form, according to the content and spirit. entities; on composite, taking into account both categories (it is he who is preferred by bibliologists). There are now about 300 definitions. A book is a work of writing or printing that has any readable sign form (alphabetic, digital, musical), fixed in any material (stone, clay, leather, papyrus, paper, etc.), simultaneously performing a number of social functions (ideological ., knowing., aesthetic., ethical., etc.) and addressed to a real or abstract cheat.
In the era of socialist society book business was characterized in the encyclopedic dictionary as "a system of interacting and solving common problems of cultural and national economy branches associated with the creation and production of books, their distribution and use. Includes publishing, printing industry, book trade, library and bibliographic business." In edition encyclopedic dictionary Nemirovsky cites the conflicting opinions of leading bibliologists on the composition of the concept of "book business": Badger included in the book business publishing, book design, bibliography, printing statistics, library and bookselling; Dinerstein only book production and distribution activities; Belovitskaya- a way of being, i.e. process and transitory intermediate result of the existence of a book in society.

2. The emergence and development of writing.

Writing is a system of signs that anchors a language. In ancient times, human memory was the only means of preserving and transmitting social experience, information about events and people. If you flip through the history of world literature, it turns out that all peoples in one way or another have passed the period "Oral book"... The immortal poems The Iliad and The Odyssey are known to have been recorded in Athens on scrolls around 510 BC. Prior to that, over the centuries, poems were circulated orally. It was difficult to memorize lines of thousands, and primitive storytellers used ribbons or knots to help them. Among the Indians of South America, such a thing was called quipu (kipu) - nodular letter(a little later, various kinds of notches, notes, nodules, and finally, drawings). Images in caves and on rocks made by the hand of a primitive person, reflect his impressions of the world around him, life, nature. These are the beginnings of art, but at the same time they are the beginnings of writing; here for the first time a person expressed his thought in an image.

3. Basic writing systems.

Pictography is a drawing (one image, one thought). The languages ​​of many ancient peoples (Sumerians, Egyptians, Chinese, Indians, Mayans) went through this stage before they acquired writing. With the emergence of the slave system, the pictographic record no longer met the needs of culture. It is gradually transformed into an ideographic letter, in which each sign expressed individual concepts, ideas, or could develop, clarify the meaning of other signs. Over time, syllabic writing was established in Babylonian, Assyrian, Hittite and other languages, where signs predominated, conveying not a word, but a syllable. In our time, the languages ​​of the most cultured peoples (Chinese, Japanese) use an ideographic writing system. There was also a hieroglyphic writing system. The word "hieroglyph" means "carving of the priests." Simplification of signs - "graphemes" - led to the creation of the so-called hieratic (clerical), and then demotic (folk) writing, in which the number of graphemes was significantly reduced. In Sumer, Babylonia, Assyria, they wrote in cuneiform. The idea of ​​letter writing, sharply democratizing the entire written book culture, tore it out from under the monopoly power of the priests. Ugaritic writing dates from historians to the 14th century BC. - the earliest alphabetic alphabet. On the basis of the ancient Egyptian demotic handwriting, universal in use, the ancient Greek alphabet ("aleph" - "beta") arose, which became the ancestor of all the alphabets of the world. From the tribes of Canaan to the Arabian Peninsula, the universal Arabic alphabet leaked. Then the Aramaic (Phoenician) alphabet appeared in the vastness of Mongolia and Manchuria. In ancient India, the spread of Buddhism contributed to the invention of a peculiar alphanumeric alphabet - Devanagari.

Ancient Greek, Etruscan, Latin languages ​​already had alphabets of 24 letters.

In the middle of the 4th century A.D. Mesrop Mashtots (362-440) developed the Armenian alphabet, which is still used today. Byzantine monks of St. Cyril and St. Methodius in 863 invented alphabet for Slavic languages.

Currently, the peoples of the world use 8000 alphabets and their variants, adapted to different languages ​​and dialects. The most common alphabets are Latin-based (26 letters).

4. Book Science in the Ancient World

The uprising of slaves, the crisis and the fall of the slave system led to the impoverishment of cultural centers and to the destruction of a mass of books. The Arab culture also flourished, spreading from the Indus to the Pyrenees. The Arabs gave Europe a cheap writing material - paper. This led to an increase in the production of manuscripts. In ancient China, the production of bamboo books was established. Finely planed bamboo plates were held together with metal staples in the form of a modern sliding window shade. On such book-curtain, as well as on the silk invented later, the Chinese painted their hieroglyphs with brushes, using ink for this. Originally, the Chinese also made paper from bamboo mass. In European countries, the ancestors of the Germans and Slavs, if they happened to receive a Greco-Roman education, satisfied their need for books with the manuscripts of the Greeks and Romans. Their numerous compatriots, as the etymology of the words denoting a book ("biblio", "liber", "libro") shows, were satisfied with notes or serifs on wooden plates. The most accessible material for writing was birch bark. Birch bark books were most widespread among the ancient Slavs, as well as among the peoples of North India. The first birch bark books in India date back to the 9th century AD.

5. Books and libraries of antiquity

The most ancient material for books was probably clay and its derivatives (shards, ceramics). Even the Sumerians and Ekkadians sculpted flat bricks-tablets and wrote on them with three-edged sticks, squeezing out wedge-shaped signs. The tablets were dried in the sun or burned in a fire. Then the ready-made tablets of the same content were placed in a certain order in a wooden box - a clay cuneiform book was obtained. Its advantages were cheapness, simplicity, and availability. V Cuneiform library, established by King Assurbanipal (VII century BC), more than 20,000 clay books were kept, each of which bore a cuneiform stamp: "Palace of the King of Kings."

The papyrus reed (Egypt, Nile) gave the possibility of the emergence and flowering of the greatest civilization of the Ancient World. Papyrus was fragile, so papyrus tapes were glued or stitched together into scrolls, which were placed in special cases - capsules or capsules, it turned out the scroll is the first known form of a book in world civilization. The age of the papyrus book ended only in the X-XI centuries AD, after the Muslim conquest of Egypt. Almost all state and local governments, colleges of priests, assemblies of citizens and wealthy people considered it prestigious to have a good library. Libraries were set up at public baths, where wealthy slave owners spent their time reading books. Specially trained slave-readers, in Latin they were called "lecturers", and in Greek "deacons", read aloud to everyone. The richest book collection of antiquity was the Alexandrian library of the Ptolemaic kings (700,000 papyrus scrolls). Along with papyrus, material made from the skins of young animals - calves, goats, sheep, rabbits - also became widespread. It was named parchment, by the name of the place where this method was invented. The flourishing of the parchment book begins with the onset of the Christian era. It was from parchment that the now dominant universal form of the book was born - code, or book block. The entrepreneur-slave owner, engaged in the reproduction and sale of handwritten books, was called in Greek "bibliopolis" - a book distributor, and in Latin "librarian" - a scribe. Ancient writers left us with a lot of evidence that in the era of imperial Rome it was possible to reproduce 50-100 copies of a work at the same time by repeated correspondence. There were twenty-eight public libraries in Rome.

6. Book in the Middle Ages.

The main writing material in the Middle Ages was parchment. At an early stage, it was sometimes painted, usually purple, painted in gold or silver. The practice of painting parchment ceased to be practiced only in the 13th century.

In the early Middle Ages, the main centers of both production and consumption of parchment were monasteries, and from the XIII century. the city-dwellers-artisans undertook the production of perga-men. They created independent parchment workshops. But still, he was constantly lacking. That is why the so-called palimpsests have become widespread - parchments from which the original text was erased, scraped off, and then a new one was written. The tool for writing, as in antiquity, was the kalam and the bird's feather - at first equally, and then the scribes switched mainly to bird feathers.

A sharp silver lead or lead pencil was used to line the sheet. In 1125, graphite was first used for this.

The first stage of making a book is the dressing of parchment, then the second stage is ruling (using a compass, a ruler and a slate lead). And only after that the calligrapher-scribe started to work. It was during the Middle Ages that the main types of writing arose that form the basis of modern Latin and Gothic scripts. This is, firstly, carolingian minuscule(lowercase handwriting). The book was designed not by the calligrapher himself, but by other specialists - miniators, rubrics, illuminators. At first, Mona-khi were masters of decoration, but from the XIII-XIV centuries. more and more lay artists began to do this.

The book did not have a title or title page. The text began with the words:"Incipit liber" ("The book begins") or none at all. Output were sometimes given at the end of the book, in the so-called colophon. .

The Middle Ages were characterized by a codex - a book block. The serial numbers of the notebook were called by the Custodes(from Latin custos - guardian). The castes replaced the impractical in the early medieval manuscript book pagination- continuous sequential numbering of pages. At the end of each sheet, it was customary to write down the first word of the next sheet - it was called advertiser(in the printed books of the 15th-16th centuries, what was previously called the cu-stode began to be called signature, and the advertiser is a custodian).

Prepared for bound notebooks were stitched into a block on a manual binding machine. Binding covers were attached to the ends of the cords on the top and bottom notebooks.

7. The invention of book printing in the East and Western Europe

The first thing that contributed to the emergence of book printing was paper, invented in China and found in Europe. In the XII-XIII centuries, the first "paper mills" appear in Spain. By the beginning of European printing, at least two-thirds of handwritten books were already produced on paper that was different sorts, of various quality. With the advent of paper, the introduction of such a concept as filigree, that is, a "watermark". The earliest information about the technical elements of book printing contains the Phaistos disc, found by archaeologists on about. Crete (Greece). It dates back to the 2nd millennium BC. NS. The disc was made of clay, on it were placed unknown signs (letters), imprinted or stamped.

Stamping principle was known even in the cuneiform cultures of the Ancient East (Sumer, Babylon). The principle of printing and imprinting is also embodied in the minting of coins. The first minted coins appeared in the 7th century AD. NS. Chinese chroniclers tell of a certain blacksmith named Bi Shen (or Pi Shen), who back in 1041-1048. made letters from clay.

Historians are of the opinion that the first experiments in printing could have been in Byzantium and Egypt. The difficulty is the absence of the books themselves.

In ancient China, hieroglyphic signs were carved on stone steles, smeared with paint, made prints, and these prints were sent to provinces and cities. Later appeared woodcut. The woodcut technique was simple: an image (text) was cut out on a wooden board in a mirror order, paint was applied to the relief, a sheet of paper was applied, pressed and smoothed with a pad, and then placed under a press. The first woodcut book is called "Diamond Sutra" ... It was made in 868. The woodcut book appeared in Europe after the Crusades. Its emergence and flourishing was facilitated by the massive demand for paper money, printed icons and papal indulgences, as well as playing cards.

The name of the legendary printer from Harlem (Netherlands) Laurens (Lawrence) Janszon Koster (church servant). Presumably, he learned the secret of printing from the Armenian refugees from the East. Then, already in his old age, on the advice of Jerome, he cut out movable letters for his grandchildren and, finally, printed several books. The idea of ​​printing was realized in the middle of the 15th century in the cities of Strasbourg and Mainz by Johannes Gutenberg.

8. Activities of Johannes Gutenberg.

The first typographical experiments of Gutenberg belong to 1440. Gutenberg's apprentices and apprentices spread the news of the great invention throughout Germany and then throughout Europe. The idea of ​​a set of letters (letters), as we know, was already known to ancient writers. The press has been used since ancient times in winemaking and in the production of printed fabric. It was also used in the manufacture of woodcuts. Gutenberg's technology for making matrices and casting type is very similar to the technique of mirror production of that time. Gutenberg combined the inventions that existed before him, embodied in practice the great idea of ​​printing books, and showed the world the first, and immediately perfect examples of publications. He created the first printing equipment, invented a new method of making type and made a type-casting mold. Made of solid metal stamps(punsons) cut in a mirror image. Then they pressed into a soft and pliable copper plate: it turned out matrix, which was filled with an alloy of metals. The alloy, developed by Gutenberg, included tin, lead, antimony. The essence of this method of making letters was that they could be cast in any quantity. For the equipment of the printing house, not just a press was required, but a printing press and case(inclined wooden box with cells). They contained letters of letters and punctuation marks.

9. Incunabula period of European typography.

The second half of the 15th century was the time of the triumphal procession of printing across Europe. Books published before December 31, 1500 are called incunabula, in Latin - "in the cradle". European books printed from 1501 to 1550 inclusive are usually referred to as paleotypes, that is, old editions. Wandering printers visited monasteries, universities, feudal castles and lived there, satisfying the need for printed materials. It is estimated that there were a total of 1,099 printing houses during the incunabula period. True, they quickly went bankrupt, and by the beginning of the 16th century, two hundred printing houses remained in Europe. Those of them survived that enjoyed the support of the rich and nobility. The first printed books have survived in an extremely small number of copies; they are completely similar to handwritten books both in type and in general in their appearance. The first printers imitated the manuscripts in everything, for the latter were valued much more expensively, and the public at first, out of habit, demanded the manuscript, suspecting the interference of the devil in the press; on the first printed copies, issued in the form of manuscripts, neither the year, nor the place of printing, nor the name of the printer was marked. The era of incunabula and paleotypes is the time of improving printing skills. Printed illustrations appeared in the book. They began to use woodcut - woodcut. Incunabula were relatively inexpensive.

10. Typographers and publishers of Elsevier

Elsevier (or, more often, Elzevier) is a famous family of Dutch typographers-publishers of the 16th - 17th centuries. Its founder was Louis E. He was at first a bookbinder and studied printing. He set up a bookstore in Leiden. His editions in different languages ​​are numerous (up to 150), but they do not differ in the virtues for which the editions of his descendants are famous. He had seven successor sons. Isaac's first typographer; his first works, executed with the money of his grandfather, date back to 1617. Having received the title of sworn printer at Leyden University, he built a printing house in the university yard, which became the first in the city. Abraham E. made a whole revolution in the book business by introducing the in-12 format. The activities of the house of E. were extremely extensive in this era; he had many branches, he was the first at the famous fairs of Frankfurt and even in Paris, thanks to the publication of Corneille and other prominent representatives of French literature.

In total, E. published more than 1,500 works — 968 Latin, 44 Greek, 126 French, 32 Flemish, 22 in the Oriental languages, 11 German, and 10 Italian. Their editions cannot compete with the editions of the Manucius or Etienne in terms of the accuracy and serviceability of the texts, but they stand out for their peculiar beauty and are highly valued by amateurs.

14 ... Outstanding European publishers XIX v.

Napoleon She (1807-1865) became a monopoly in the field of publishing and distributing books on transport. Oldest German the Cotta firm was founded in 1639 by a poor bookseller in the city of Tubing. Its representatives grew rich, acquired acquaintances in the literary environment. Published by Baron Johann Cotta von Kottendorf (1764-1832). "He stood at the origins of the new bourgeois century," the historian wrote about him, "he grasped the tasks of the development of the book in his era and was this model."

Friedrich Brockhaus (1772-1823) published reference and encyclopedic literature. Its famous edition - encyclopedic Dictionary"Conversion Lexicon" Brockhaus completely excluded political and corporate assessments from its vocabulary, for him everything should be equally described and explained.

Philip Advertising (1807-1896) counted on a buyer from the poorest environment, student youth, literate proletarians. Especially famous is his cheap series "General Library", where all the most important names in German and world literature were presented.

Ernest Zeemann (1829 - 1904) founded the first specialized company in Germany for the production and sale of visual products - reproductions of paintings, postcards, art albums.

In France, the company founded in 1826 is still considered the largest universal publishing house. Louis Hachette (1800 - 1864). He came to the fore as an educator, publisher of inexpensive textbooks, manuals for the school, then showed commercial acumen, crowding out competitors and skillfully finding profitable publications. Large circulations have always been a feature of this publishing house.

Pierre Jules Etzel (1814 - 1886), a children's writer, founded a publishing house for children's and educational books, distinguished by the quality and range of its publications. He was the first to enter into an agreement with Jules Verne for the publication of all his books.

Kalman Levy (1819-1891), a native of Germany, founded a trade in theatrical publications with his brothers in Paris. His business grew into largest publishing house scientific and art history literature.

Pierre Larousse (1817 - 1875), compiler of dictionaries, philologist, not finding support for his broad plans to publish educational literature, founded his own publishing house.

The oldest publishing house currently existing in the English-speaking countries publishing house " Macmillan "was founded in 1843 in London, then it was transferred to the United States.

16. Book in Russia in XI- Xvi centuries

Handwritten books of the XI-XIII centuries. not so many have survived to this day.

The oldest surviving Russian books date back to the 11th century. There are a little more than two dozen of them (including excerpts), most of them are liturgical or religiously moral. The rarest and most precious monument of ancient book writing - the famous Ostrom World Gospel(written by the scribe deacon-Gregory). Another remarkable monument of ancient Russian book writing - "Izbornik Svyatoslav" 1073 It can be considered the first Russian encyclopedia, covering a wide range of issues, and not only theological and church-canonical: it contains articles on botany, zoology, medicine, astronomy, grammar and poetics.

The Tatar-Mongol invasion had a heavy impact on the entire book education of Ancient Russia. Ancient centers of Russian book culture perished, literacy among the people fell, and the number of written monuments themselves fell sharply.

In feudal centers - at princely courts, monasteries, etc. - there were local workshops for the correspondence of books. In the book business of that time, a division of labor was already emerging. The owners of large workshops employed hired labor, hired scribes from outside. At the end of the XIV century. along with the old centers of book business - Novgorod and Pskov - new ones appeared: Tver, Rostov, the Suzdal principality. The Trinity-Sergius monasteries in Moscow and the Kirillo-Belozersky monasteries were famous for their book-copying workshops.

With the rise of the Moscow Grand Duchy and the formation of a national and then multinational Russian state, book collections appear and grow in Moscow. The first large state archives, extensive libraries were created here, books were rewritten and translated. At the end of the 15th century. in Moscow, large manuscript workshops appeared with a whole staff of scribes, translators, editors, draftsmen and bookbinders.

At the turn of the XIV-XV centuries. Russian culture and book business were influenced by the Slavic and Greco-Slavic monasteries on Athos and Constantinople. This is the so-called second South Slavic influence. The end of the 14th century and the entire 15th century are characterized by unrelenting ties with the southern Slavs and monastic colonies in the Balkans. The repertoire of liturgical literature, graphics, materials and writing tools, the nature of the design of a manuscript book are changing. In new, more complete and accurate translations, lists of biblical books and hagiographic texts are distributed.

17 ... The emergence and development of book printing in the Moscow state.

The first printed book of the Moscow state was long considered the Apostle printed by Ivan Fedorov and Peter in 1564, in the afterword of which the founding of the printing house in Moscow is also attributed to 1553. Although the book-writing business was becoming more widespread and a whole class of "volunteers" who made books for sale were engaged in it but they could not meet all the growing needs. They also knew about it abroad: the Tübingen printers, when undertaking the printing of Slavic books in the 16th century, counted on sales in various Slavic countries, and put the Russians in the foreground. On the other hand, the appearance of book printing in Moscow was caused by the need to have corrected books, since scribes usually treated the correctness of the text with carelessness. It was strictly forbidden to sell uncorrected books, that is, with errors. The first "printers" were at the same time specialists in printing technique and engraving, and editors of publications. The first printing house set up by Ivan the Terrible was furnished, judging by the type and purity of the press, very richly. A building was erected for the printing house next to the Nikolsky Greek Monastery, where the Moscow Printing House was then located. In the second half of the 16th century. the first printers had to flee from Moscow, as the people considered them heretics and burned the printing yard. Under John IV, only four editions were printed.

Church books began to be printed continuously in Moscow only with the establishment of the patriarchate (1589). The books that came out of the Moscow printing house in the 17th century were almost exclusively liturgical, polemical, and sacred. At the beginning of the 17th century. at the Printing House, the Correct Chamber was founded, with the goal of editing and preparing the text of the book for printing. Among the persons involved in printing books, Vasily Fedorov Burtsev, the clerk of the patriarchal court, is especially famous. Under Patriarch Joseph, the printing business continued to expand.

18 ... Activities of Ivan Fedorov

Ivan Fedorov (1510-1583) - founder of book printing in Russia and Ukraine. According to some sources, he studied at the University of Krakow, where he received a bachelor's degree. He began his activity together with P. Mstislavets in 1563 in Moscow, where he published the first Russian book "Apostle". In it, he acted not only as a printer, but also as an editor. There are many illustrations in the publication. The font was developed on the basis of the Moscow semi-Ustav. In addition to The Apostle, two editions of The Chasovnik were published in Moscow.

But in 1566 Ivan Fedorov, together with P. Mstislavets, left Moscow and moved to Ukraine. According to one version, this was due to the persecution of the orthodox elite of the church, according to the other - a cultural mission.

In July 1568, in Zabludovo, a small town in the west of Belarus, the press of Ivan Fyodorov's printing house started working. The printing house did not exist for long - about two years. The printers brought the font, engraved boards of headpieces, endings and drop caps, as well as simple tools from Moscow. Ivan Fedorov arrived in Lvov in the fall of 1572. It took a lot of money to found a printing house. Ivan Fedorov was supported by Ukrainian artisans. At the beginning of 1575, a major Ukrainian feudal lord, Prince Konstantin Konstantinovich Ostrozhsky, who had long thought about publishing a complete Slavic Bible, invited Ivan Fedorov to his service. Seeing this as an opportunity to continue his favorite business, as well as a way out of financial difficulties, the printer agreed.

Ivan Fedorov leaves Lvov. The fourth printing house in his life was the most productive.

Ivan Fedorov is a figure of the Renaissance period. Like many people during this period, he was versatile enlightened, along with the publishing business, he cast cannons, invented a multi-barrel mortar with parts that were interchangeable. For a certain time (throughout 1583) he worked in Krakow, Vienna and, possibly, Dresden. He had close ties with the enlightened people of Europe. Ivan Fedorov finished his life in Lviv in 1583.

19 ... Slavic first printers Shvay Paul Feol and Francis Skaryna

Francis Skaryna- Belarusian pioneer printer and educator. In 1517-19 he published in Prague "Psalter" and 20 separate books of the Bible for the first time in translation into the Slavic language. In the beginning. 20s founded a printing house in Vilnius. Skaryna's activities contributed to the formation of the Belarusian literary language.

Fiol Schweipolt- Slavic pioneer printer. It belonged to the Krakow workshop of goldsmiths and arrived in Krakow in the 1470s. and, using the patronage and funds of the banker Jan Thurzo, founded a printing house. The Cyrillic script was made by R. Borsdorf, who was in Moscow and knew Slavic books. S. Fiol well studied the need for liturgical books in the Slavic language, so the first editions were liturgical books - "Octoich" (1491) and "Book of Hours" (1491). They were printed in two colors - black ink and cinnabar. Two other books - "Lenten Triode" and "Color Triode" - were published around 1493. Persecutions by the Krakow Inquisition interrupted the activities of S. Fiol, and his printing house ceased to exist.

20 ... A handwritten book in Russia in XVII v.

Knowledge of books, reading texts, listening to them at liturgies was an integral part of people's lives, and the missing information of secular content was filled in with a handwritten book. It more fully satisfied the public need for scientific information and applied knowledge. In addition, handwritten books were often cheaper than printed ones.

Correspondence of books was traditionally conducted in monasteries. The largest of them were the Chudov Monastery, Antoniev-Siysky, Solovetsky. The books were copied by clergy and representatives of the secular population, mainly residents of the townships. Sometimes this role was played by the serfs of the noble boyars - slaves.

In Moscow, clerks and clerks worked on Ivanovskaya Square, who copied and sold notebooks with texts for a small fee. Correspondence was still a difficult, exhausting job. It is no accident that at the end of the book the scribe sometimes left his instructions, requests, and teachings in the margins. In general, in the 17th century, the genre content of manuscripts , which later affected the repertoire of printed books. There were many practical guides among the manuscripts.

Have firmly entered the handwritten book historical writings ... The most traditional historical writings were chronicles. At the end of the century, everyday narrative literature appears. In some works

21. The printed book in Russia in XVII v.

For several decades, there was a process of penetration into the church book of elements of secularism, which was expressed in the appearance the first printed secular books brought by the Ukrainian and Belarusian book cultures. These were the first alphabets, educational psalters, collections of instructive readings for the year (prologues), calendars. Many of these books have been reprinted many times.

In just a century, 750 book titles were printed, of which 27 percent of the total were printed in the first half of the century. The share of liturgical texts intended for worship accounts for about 85 percent. This includes service books, missives, oktoichi, triodi, six days.

The appearance of the first secular books required a different approach of the masters to the production of publications, the development of new forms of organizational and creative nature. For the first time, the creators of the books got acquainted with new techniques and methods of constructing a book, its design. The 17th century is the century of the birth of "typographic art", when the techniques of old Russian masters are combined with elements of innovation.

In the 1630s Vasily Fedorovich Burtsov-Protopopov , "clerk of the alphabet," began work on his first "ABC". He took Ivan Fedorov's "ABC" as a sample and reprinted it with minor changes in 1634.

The publishing of the ABCs has become a permanent part of the activities of the Printing House.

No less famous was the textbook "Grammar" of the scientist-philosopher, public and church figure Melety Smotrytsky .

In 1649, in the Russian book appeared copper engravings ... They were used to decorate the book "The Teachings and Cunning of the Military Structure of the Infantry People". In the same year, 1649, the "Cathedral Code" of Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich was published - the first printed book of state designation. It was a set of laws that legally formalized serfdom in Russia.

At the end of the 17th century, several new textbooks , among which the whole-engraved "Primer" by Karion Istomin stands alone. It came out in 1696 and was intended for a narrow circle of members of the royal family, since its circulation was only 25 copies.

23 ... Book in Russia in the first half Xviii v.

The foundations of industry are being created, domestic and foreign trade is developing, a regular national army and navy is being organized, Russia's economic and cultural ties with the countries of the West and East are being strengthened. The international authority of the Russian Empire is growing.

The rapid economic and political development was accompanied by the rapid growth of national culture, science, and education. Breaking with the religious traditions of the past, the new Russian culture acquired a pronounced secular character. Public schools of various types were opened, accessible to people of different social status. Scientific, cultural and educational institutions were created.

Publishing business in the first quarter of the 18th century became widespread. Until now, it has served primarily the needs of the church. Peter I personally supervised book printing and publishing, determined the topics of publications, supervised the translation of books and was the editor of many of them. His name is associated with the creation of a Russian printing house in Amsterdam, the founding of the St. Petersburg printing house, the introduction of civil type, the creation of the first Russian printed newspaper "Vedomosti" and much more.

In the development of Russian culture and publishing, an important role was played by the reform of the Russian alphabet, and on its basis - the reform of the press (replacement of the old Cyrillic alphabet with its complex graphics). Such experienced people as the well-known figure in the field of book printing I.A. Musin-Pushkin, head of the first Moscow civilian printing house V.A. Kipriyanov, typeface Mikhail Efremov. Drawings of the new font were made by draftsman and draftsman Kulenbach.

24. Book business in Russia during the Age of Enlightenment (second half Xviii v.)

Second half of the 18th century characterized by the further strengthening of the autocratic noble serf state, especially during the reign of Catherine II, who behaves like a zealous student of Voltaire and other French enlighteners. It permits the translation and printing of their works, approves the publication of three volumes of the famous Encyclopedia by Diderot and D'Alembert, and translates Marmontel's book Belisarius, which was attacked by the French clergy.

The policy of enlightened absolutism, hiding behind the idea of ​​the "common good," but in reality striving to subdue public opinion, at first contributed to the development of publishing. Already in the 60s. book production increased sharply, amounting to the end of the 80s. more than 400 publications per year. An exceptional role in the growth of book production and the expansion of the subject matter of books was played by the decree on free printing houses, published in early 1783 and ordering "not to distinguish between printing houses for printing books from other factories and handicrafts." The decree made it possible for individuals to start printing houses without asking for special permission from the government.

Second half of the 18th century was the end of the dominance of the handwritten book in the reading repertoire of the Russian reader. The old printed book, serving almost exclusively the needs of the church, was replaced by the utilitarian-pragmatic editions of Peter the Great's time, and were replaced by books bearing the stamp of the Academy of Sciences, Moscow University and "free" printing houses, varied in content, affordable, widely distributed in the capitals and provincial centers of the Russian state.

In addition to scientific and educational literature, reference books and popular science books were published. French books account for about 1/6 of all editions published from 1725 to 1800. Especially a lot of fiction was translated. For the most part, it was entertainment, entertainment literature.

In the second half of the 18th century. a special reading environment is gradually emerging from small urban artisans, merchants, commoners, small bureaucratic people, etc.

25. The role of N.I. Novikova in the development of Russian books in the second half Xviii v.

“A zealot of Russian education Nikolai Ivanovich Novikov (1744-1808) for his services in the development of Russian culture. In 1769 Novikov left civil service and devoted his life to enlightenment.

During his publishing career N.I. Novikov published about ten and a half hundred book titles. This is one and a half times more than was issued in the entire first quarter of the 18th century. He popularized the works of Russian literature, published educational literature. Under his leadership, a free library was founded, and for charitable purposes he opened a hospital and a pharmacy.

Novikov began his publishing career with the release of satirical and educational magazines ("Truten" = "Pukstomelya", "Painter", "Purse"). The political and civic stance of editor and publisher has won many adherents. During the year, 53 sheets were issued, and the initially modest print run was 626 copies. doubled in a few numbers.

In the spirit of the growing interest in moral, educational and practical literature, a magazine for women was conceived. According to N.I. Novikov, it was designed for the representatives of the middle class, whose duties included, first of all, the upbringing of the younger generation.

A literary magazine for women's reading began to be published under the name Fashion Monthly or Ladies' Dress Library.

The most fruitful period in the activities of N.I. Novikov was associated with the printing house of the university. Having united the production and sale of books in one hands, Novikov created a publishing and bookselling company. On September 12, 1784, with the active participation of the "Friendly Scientific Society", the "Printing Company" was created, which, according to the decree on free printing, received economic and political independence.

The funds raised were used to equip a new printing house.

Despite his successes, shortly before the appearance of the decree banning free printing houses, his activities were persecuted by the authorities.

A man who had done so much for the development of Russian book publishing and education was declared a state criminal only on the grounds that his ideological views were at odds with the views of the ruling government.

26 ... Book business in Russia in the first half XIX v.

At the beginning of the 19th century, the process of gradual disintegration of serfdom and the development of capitalist elements in the country's economy continued in Russia. The reforms carried out by the government of Alexander I affected not only industry, but also culture, public education, and book publishing. In the first decade of the 19th century, a number of measures were taken to weaken censorship: the ban on the import of foreign literature was lifted, and the opening of private printing houses was allowed. A short period of relative freedom of the press gave impetus to the development of book publishing. In 1801-1805. 1304 books in Russian and 641 books in foreign languages ​​were printed in Russia. Thus, at this time in Russia, on average, about 260 books were published in Russian and about 130 books in foreign languages: just a little less than 400 books per year.

An important role in the development of book publishing was played by the improvement of printing technology, new inventions and discoveries introduced into the process of book production.

In 1816-1818. on the embankment of the Fontanka River in St. Petersburg under the guidance of engineer A.A. Betancourt, the Expedition for the Procurement of State Papers was formed, which included a paper mill and a printing house, which played a significant role in improving printing technology.

The transition to stereotyping, a method of obtaining complete copies of a typesetting printing form, allowed to increase the circulation of publications.

At the beginning of the 19th century, books were printed mainly in state printing houses: the Academy of Sciences, Senate, University, Synodal, etc.

Since 1802, in connection with the permission to open "free printing houses", the number of printing houses owned by private individuals has been growing. If in St. Petersburg in 1801 there were only 12 state-owned printing houses, then in 1807 there were already 54 state-owned and 12 private printing houses in all of Russia.

An even greater revival of the printing business began after the publication of a decree in 1807 on the opening of printing houses in all provincial cities. Printing enterprises are being set up on the periphery.

The printing house of the Dukes of Kurzeme after the annexation of the Duchy of Courland to Russia became the Courland provincial printing house, and later a private publishing house. It was one of the best printing houses in Russia.

In the first third of the 19th century, almanacs came into vogue, since this peculiar type of publication is something between a magazine and a non-periodical publication.

In-depth metal engraving remained the main method of illustrating books in the first half of the 19th century. Copper engraving was dominant, made using the incisor technique for etching preparation. At the beginning of the 19th century, not “decoration” came to the fore, but “illustration”, not a vignette, but a “picture” associated with the content, with the idea, with the text of the book.

The design of the Russian book corresponds to that noble and restrained style, which is called Russian classicism. The format of the book also changed - it became larger in size.

27. Publishers of the first half XIX v.

In 1801 Platon Platonovich Beketov (1761-1836) opened a printing house with a foundry and a bookstore in his big house on Kuznetsky Most. The commercial side of the matter was in the background for Beketov. He strove to publish a high quality Russian book. For eleven years of his publishing activity P.P. Beketov has published over a hundred publications. The largest publisher-patron was Nikolay Petrovich Rumyantsev (1754-1826), a great lover and connoisseur of antiquity. Its most valuable library, collection of manuscripts, coins, medals laid the foundation for the Rumyantsev Museum.

At the expense of N.P. Rumyantsev, over forty editions were published, which were printed in domestic and foreign printing houses.

The activities of the Russian fabulist Ivan Andreevich Krylov (1769-1844) as a journalist and publisher began with a collaboration in the magazine "Morning Hours". At the end of 1791 I.A. Krylov together with the artist P.V. Plavilshchikov, actor I.A. Dmitriev, critic and playwright A.I. Klushin bought from I.G. Rachmaninov's printing house and bookstore. This is how the publishing company “Krylov's Printing House with Comrades.

A prominent St. Petersburg publisher and bookseller of the early 19th century was Vasily Alekseevich Plavilshchikov (1768-1823) brother of the actor and writer P.A. Plavilshchikova. In 1794, on the basis of the printing house previously owned by I.A. Krylov, he founded a publishing house.

In 1813 g. Ivan Vasilievich Slenin (1789-1835), together with his brother Yakov Vasilyevich, opened a bookstore in St. Petersburg in Gostiny Dvor. I.V. Slenin was familiar with the future participants in the December armed uprising of 1825, and many of them were visitors to his bookstore.

A prominent Moscow owner of the printing house was Semyon Ioannikievich Selivanovsky (1772-1835) since 1800 resumed its activities in Moscow and rented the Senate printing house. In 1802 he had his own printing house, at which a type casting workshop was organized, which provided many printing houses in Russia with fonts. Selivanovsky attached great importance to the design of his publications.

Glazunov Matvey Petrovich (1757-1830) opened a book trade in Moscow on Spassky Most at the end of the 18th century, and then began publishing a book. His firm had a reputation for being a sustainable enterprise.

Yakov Alekseevich Isakov (1811-1881) opened his own trade in 1825. As a publisher, Isakov became famous for publishing the series "Classic Library", "Travel Library". The school of Ya.I. Isakov passed many famous scribes of the second half of the 19th century.

28. Publishing activity of Smirdin.

In many ways, the establishment of commercial relations between the writer and the publisher, the professionalization of writing was facilitated by the activities of the outstanding St. Petersburg publisher of the 30-40s. XIX century. Alexander Filippovich Smirdin (1795-1857). After the death of his patron, Plavil'shchikov, Smirdin inherited his book business and developed an extensive book-selling and publishing activity. The success of Smirdin as a publisher begins with the release in 1829 of the "moral and satirical novel" by F.V. Bulgarin "Ivan Vyzhigin". The circulation, huge for those times, about 4 thousand copies, was sold out in three weeks. It was one of the first novels in Russia, written on the basis of Russian everyday life, and therefore was perceived by contemporaries almost as the first "Russian" novel. The prosperity of Smirdin was facilitated by the publication of the poem by A.S. Pushkin's "Fountain of Bakhchisarai", which had an unprecedented success with the reader. At the end of 1831, Smirdin transferred the bookshop and library for reading to a new, luxurious for those times premises on Nevsky Prospect. This event was regarded as a sharp leap in the history of the Russian book trade and even literature. Smirdin also undertook three editions of the collection One Hundred Russian Writers (1839-1845). The edition was supposed to be in 10 volumes, but was not completed!

Smirdin encouraged the activities of Russian writers, paying them high fees, thereby contributing to the transformation of writers' work into professional work. The Smirda "era" for the first time makes the fee a natural phenomenon.

A group of reactionary writers (Senkovsky, Grech, Bulgarin) played a significant role in the ruin of Smirdin. At the expense of Smirdin, they published the Library for Reading magazine (since 1834) and the Northern Bee newspaper (since 1835). The purchase of the Northern Bee cost Smirdin too much and brought him only one loss. In 1842 Smirdin went bankrupt.

In the second half of the 40s. Smirdin makes an attempt to restore the publishing house. A mass edition of the Complete Works of Russian Authors was published. Completely ruined, brought almost to poverty, Smirdin retired from the book business and died in 1857.

29 ... The main directions of book business in the second half XIX v.

Social upsurge of the 60s. affected both overall growth printed products (by circulation and titles), and on changing the subject matter of literature. Although, as before, many textbooks, religious books, and fiction are published in the capital, there is also an increase in the production of serious socio-economic and natural science literature. Meeting the needs of the new democratic reader, publishing houses publish works of outstanding Western European thinkers - economists, philosophers, sociologists, natural scientists, whose work met with a sympathetic response in the advanced Russian society. The production of literature on agriculture and technology increased somewhat, but its share in the total mass of publications was extremely small.

The peculiarity of reading a raznochinny reader of the 60s. - in the reading circle, along with censored articles by Democratic writers, illegal publications are included, which have a profound influence on the formation of the world outlook of the sixties, to a large extent determine his reader's and civic appearance. The penetration into Russia of the editions of the Free London Printing House, the reading of the Polar Star, The Bell, the works of Herzen and Ogarev and other works of the free Russian foreign press became a sign of the era. For the first time, the uncensored printed word, passionately calling for freedom, for struggle, for resistance to the cruel autocratic order, the police-bureaucratic system that dominated the country.

By the end of the century, mean ...........

The printing process quickly spread throughout Europe. Until the end of the 15th century. typography arose in Italy in 1465, in Switzerland in 1468, in France, Belgium, Hungary, Poland in 1470, in England in 1474, in Czechoslovakia in 1476, in Austria, Denmark in 1482, in Sweden in 1483, in Portugal in 1487. In total until the end of the 15th century. 1100-1700 printing houses arose in European cities. They issued a total of 40,000 incunabula titles. Currently, there are 500 thousand copies left, of which 50% are religious, the rest are secular.

The first printers had at their disposal a huge literary material accumulated by previous generations, which could be selected for publication. Initially, books were published in Latin, but gradually more and more books appear in national languages.

In Germany, the Gutenberg business was continued by the merchant from Mainz, Johann Fust. Having become the owner of the printing house, he started publishing printed books, first alone, and then in 1455 his son-in-law Peter Schaeffer (until 1430 - c. 1503) entered the business. Peter Scheffer graduated from the Erfurt and Paris Universities, worked in Mainz. He received his first skills in working with a book in Paris, where he served as a calligrapher and draftsman at the university. Upon his arrival in Mainz, Schaeffer worked for 5 years as an apprentice in the Gutenberg printing house, then married Fust's daughter favorably and became his companion. For 11 years they worked together, and after the death of Fust, the printing house run by P. Schaeffer continued to work for another 36 years. During this time, 285 books were published, mainly in large format and large volume, as well as a number of printed sheets. The most famous edition of Peter Schaeffer was the Psalter, printed in Mainz in 1457 in folio format in large, beautiful type. The decoration of this edition was the curly two-color (blue and red) initials, of which there are a total of 288 (according to Ruppel) and 290 (according to Nemirovsky). In total, 10 copies of the Mainz Psalter have survived, all of which have been reproduced by typography from composite forms. The initial letter in this decoration was engraved on a metal plate, and the ornament surrounding it was engraved on a wooden board. The famous scientist E.L. Nemirovsky believes that they were reproduced using a woodcut method; according to another version, the ornamental pattern was printed from a metal form, but not deepened, but sublime. The intricate pattern of initials, composed of the finest lines, scientists called "cuckoo tears." The book contains pawnshops - red initials that begin each new phrase. This edition introduces a typographic mark for the first time.

The Bible (1462) was a great success. In 1485 the book "The Garden of Health" was published. The last book printed by Schaeffer's printing house dates from 1502.

In his publications, Peter Schaeffer experimented a lot: for the first time, he has output information placed in the colophon (an element of the reference apparatus of handwritten and early printed books). In the Mainz Psalter (1457), the colophon reads: "... The Code of the Psalms was completed by Johann Fust, a city dweller of Mainz, and Peter Scheffer of Gernsheim in the Lord's summer 1457 on the eve of the Dormition." Here, for the first time, a signet appears - the sign of the printer, and in the Benedictine Psalter, for the first time, there is a typographical stamp made in the technique of wood engraving. Schaeffer was the first to use the "vraskat" printing technique, when one color of an image or text gradually passes into another. Basically, the printing went in two colors according to the technology invented by Gutenberg. This technology is a two-pass printing from one form.

The first printers also faced such a difficult task as the reproduction of musical texts that accompanied the liturgical books. However, it was not immediately possible to solve it. The first step was taken by Schaeffer, who introduced the printing of lines of musical text, the notes themselves, as in handwritten books, were inscribed by hand. In addition to innovations in printing processes, Schaeffer improved the type and composition of the alloy, using steel for the first time. He introduced new fonts based on Gothic handwriting.

In addition to letterpress printing, early printers carried out experiments in the field of gravure printing. One of the first attempts was made in the 40s. XV century an unknown engraver, who scientists call "the master of playing cards." Poor quality copper engravings are found in Dante's Divine Comedy, which appeared in Bruges in 1476. The copper engraving appears in the publication of Giovanni Boccaccio's On the Famous Losers, also published in Bruges. The best samples copper engravings in the incunabula era are works by Baccio Baldini for The Divine Comedy, based on drawings by Sandro Botticelli. The typographer Nicolo di Lorenzo planned to include 100 illustrations in this edition, but the plan was not fully realized, and now there is not a single copy in the world in which the number of copper engravings in this edition would exceed 23 units. The publication was published in 1481, it was at this time that Botticelli, at the call of the pope, left for Rome to paint the Sistine Chapel and returned to Florence only two years later, when the book had already been printed. Her weekend information is laconic: "Nicolo di Lorenzo, originally from Germany, printed in Florence the Comedy of Dante, the most excellent poet on August 30, 1481".

A large printing center was Bamberg (near Nuremberg) - the second city in Germany where book printing began to develop. Albrecht Pfister worked here (c. 1410-1466). He gained fame as an outstanding typographer due to the fact that he produced mainly illustrated editions. Pfister realized the idea of ​​simultaneous printing of text and illustrations, laid out in a set. Before him, no one could do it. For 6 years of independent work, he published 9 books. All of them were small in volume and were intended for public reading, since they were published in German, and not in learned Latin. In addition, the poorly educated reader, to whom Pfister was guided, perceived better the book provided with illustrations. He published his first book in 1461 under the title The Bohemian Tiller, or A Widower's Conversation with Death. This work belonged to the pen of the Czech writer Jan iz Tepla. The plot glorified the high feeling of love of a young peasant who entered into a dispute with death. The chosen theme was so successful that in 1463 the second edition of the book was undertaken. It was an illustrated edition, in which full-page illustrations of 220-140 mm in size, printed from separate boards, compositionally very organically complemented the text, making it more comprehensible. Thanks to the illustrations, the theme of death and the unlimited possibilities of the human person sounded in a completely different way. The Bohemian Tiller is a 24-page book. Its text is printed in black ink, the initials and headings at the beginning of the paragraphs are reproduced by hand in cinnabar (a mineral, mercury sulfide). Also in two editions, in 1461 and 1463, the book of the Swiss writer Ulrich Boehner "The Precious Stone" was published. It consists of 100 moralizing fables. There are 88 sheets and 103 illustrations in the edition.

In 1462, Pfister issued two editions of the "Bible of the Poor" with an abundance of illustrations: in the first edition - 136, in the second - 176 illustrations. These editions successfully solved the problem of compact placement of engravings, many of which literally invaded the text, breaking it into parts. The work on this edition has enriched typography with typesetting techniques. Moreover, Pfister combined a text set and an illustration cliché in one form, which made it possible to print in one run. And, although the drawings were obtained only in outline, with the help of this achievement, it was possible to significantly simplify the process of printing illustrated books, which, thanks to their pictoriality and clarity, became more attractive.

The Nuremberg printer Anton Koberger (1445-1513) left a noticeable mark on the history of German printing. He was born into a baker's family, but became famous in the printing business. The beginning of Koberger's printing activity dates back to 1470. He was one of the few printers who turned his craft workshop into a manufacturing enterprise. At the end of the 15th century. his Nuremberg printing house became the leading center for book publishing in Europe. More than 100 people worked at the Koberger enterprise, servicing 24 machines.

Koberger's head office was in Nuremberg. Books bought from other printers or published at his enterprise were sent here. In addition, Koberger had trade warehouses in France: his brother Hans operated in Lyon, and agent Bimmenstock was Koberger's confidant in Paris. Also, representatives of the company worked in Vienna and Krakow. Koberger maintained close ties with merchants from Leipzig, Florence, Genoa, Milan, Venice. The names of his partners are found in Nuremberg, Hagenau, Strasbourg, Basel. Thanks to an extensive network of traveling agents and the presence of permanent offices in the largest cities in Germany, France and Italy, Koberger was quite familiar with the situation on the European book market. The wide dissemination of Koberger's publications gave rise to the compilation of catalogs, which contained the lists of the publications issued by him. He also printed "inzerats", that is, announcements of upcoming publications. During the operation of the printing house, 220 book titles were issued, mostly large-format well-illustrated editions. Among them are the Bible with engravings (19 different editions), "Mirrors" - monumental collections of knowledge, works of medieval philosophers, lawyers, theologians, ancient authors, Italian and German humanists. The World Chronicle (1493) by the Nuremberg physician Hartman Schedel deserves special attention. The format of this edition is "folio", and the volume is more than 300 sheets. The book contains a lot of informative material, accompanied by rich illustrations. All of them were reproduced in woodcut technique, drawings for which were performed by famous artists Michael Wolgemut and Wilhelm Pleidenwurf. They engraved 645 boards. In total, the book turned out to be 1809 illustrations - portraits, city views and everyday sketches. The engraving depicting a panorama of Nuremberg contains many details that enhance the sense of reality, in particular, you can see the paper mill belonging to Koberger, where the paper for his company was made. Koberger produced this costly edition without hesitation at the expense. So, for example, only the royalties for the drawings amounted to 1000 Rhine guilders, which is equivalent to 2.5 kg of gold.

The publications published with the participation of Albrecht Durer (1471-1528), to whom Koberger was godfather, gained great fame. Dürer collaborated with the Basel printer Johann Bergmann von Olpe, from whom the master received an invitation to participate in the design of the satirical book of the humanist writer Sebastian Brant "The Ship of Fools". The edition was published on February 13, 1494. The work, written in living German language, topical by the nature of the topics raised, immediately gained incredible popularity. Already in 1494, the book had to be reprinted twice, and by the end of the 16th century. it went through 26 editions. The book has been translated into French, Dutch, Latin. Earlier works German literature did not have such a truly international success. The book marked the beginning of the literary movement "about fools", in whose person the social vices of their time were ridiculed - pedantic scientists, charlatans, boasters and rude doctors. Brant's elegant satire mocks human folly. The success of the "Ship of Fools" was in no small measure due to its brilliant printing performance. The book was adorned with 114 woodcuts, of which 81 were by Dürer. His illustrations not only help to understand the author's satirical concept, but in many respects clarify, complement and develop it. The illustrations masterfully embody Dürer's ability to depict the smallest details of the environment, life and customs prevailing in society.

In addition to woodcuts, Dürer worked with copper engravings. These two facets of creativity developed in parallel, exerting mutual influence. Each of them was aimed at a certain audience. Wood engraving, close to folk pictures, was clearer to the people. The copper engraving made it possible to solve specific artistic problems and was intended for connoisseurs and connoisseurs who were more prepared in matters of art.

Returning to Nuremberg, Dürer embarks on a large series of woodcuts, united under the title "Apocalypse". There are 15 prints in the book, on the reverse side of which the text was printed. One of the most significant works of Dürer is the engraving "Arc de Triomphe" or "Triumph", made by order of Emperor Maximilian I. For three years, Dürer and his assistants cut 192 boards with a total size of 3.53 m. It was impossible to print an engraving of such a large size right away. therefore it was printed from several clichés put together. At the same time, Dürer completed another work commissioned by the emperor - "The Prayer Book of Emperor Maximilian." The popularity of Dürer's prints was so great, and they were in such demand that his workshop began to produce individual prints.

In England, the birth of book printing dates back to the last quarter of the 15th century. and is associated with the name of William Caxton. He founded a printing press near Westminster Abbey. In 1474, the first book in England, "Discourses and Aphorisms of Philosophers", was published here, and in 1476 a book called "The Canterbury Tales" by Geoffrey Chaucer appeared. Its first edition consisted of 742 pages, the second - 622. During the first 3 years of the printing house's existence, about 30 voluminous editions were printed, for example, the edition of "Polychronica" has 890 pages, "The Story of King Arthur" 862 pages. Published Caxton and illustrated books. For example, "The Mirror of the World" (1481) was accompanied by woodcuts. In total, Kexton printed 99 books, of which 78 were on English language... The typographer in Westminster died in 1491, and after his death the printing house passed to Wyckin de Ward, who printed a lot, but his books were not of high quality.

Typography in France originated with the help of the Germans. In 1469 Martin Krantz, Michael Friburger and Ulrich Goering arrived in Paris. With the assistance of the rector of the University of Paris, they opened a printing house, and a year later the first printed French book appeared there. Another printing house in Paris was founded in 1473 also at the initiative of German printers. In the same year, a printing house was opened in Lyon. It belonged to Guillaume Le Roy. He was one of those printers who studied the craft in Venice, and his typography was successful for 15 years. Another French printer, Pasquier Bonom, published the first book in French in 1476. It was a three-volume work "Great French Chronicles". The printers Dupre and Verard organized the issue of horarii - books of hours, which have survived 200 editions, mainly mass ones, intended for the people, and also richly designed for aristocrats. The earliest Watchmaker, Antoine Verard, was released alone in Paris in 1485-1486. He is credited with introducing this type of printed matter. He and Dupre also published novels, chronicles, and ancient authors. By 1500, 66 printers were working in Paris. By the end of the 15th century. 400 editions were printed in France.

Typography entered Italy from Germany. The Germans Arnold Pannartz and Konrad Svenheim founded a printing house in Subiaco, then in Rome. But the true flourishing of Italian typography reached in Venice, where the famous Ald Manutius worked. He was born around 1450 in Bassiano, near Rome. The education he received in Rome, and then in Ferrara, made it possible to master perfectly the Latin and Greek languages, to acquire knowledge of classical philosophy and literature, which every educated person of that time should have had. Ald's brilliant education opened up great opportunities for Ald. To begin with, he was invited to the castle of the princes Pico de Mirandola, where he spent 2 years saturated with intellectual conversations and works, and then around 1485, on the recommendation of Giovanni Pico de Mirandola, he entered the mentorship of the young princes Alberto and Lionello di Carpi, who later played a significant role in the development of Ald as a publisher. Already during the years of his mentorship, Ald worked successfully on the creation of textbooks for Greek and Latin grammar. Textbooks enjoyed increased attention from readers, since in many cities of Italy, in particular in Rome, Padua, Bologna, Ferrara, Venice, many were studying the Greek and Latin languages.

In 1501-1502 Alda's textbook of Latin grammar was published, and his textbook of Greek grammar was published in 1515. While teaching, he had the idea of ​​creating his own printing house, and in 1494 it opened in Venice. Funds for its establishment were allocated to him by Alberto di Carpi. The famous publisher briefly called his enterprise "House of Alda". It was a publishing house with its own printing house, where outstanding representatives of the spiritual culture of that time worked as editors: Erasmus of Rotterdam, educated Greeks who were forced to flee from the Turks after the collapse of the Byzantine Empire of the Palaeologus. In total, 30 people worked in the circle of editors, who were called the "New Academy", created on the model of Platon's. They discussed manuscripts, recommended them for publication, and reviewed the texts. In the publishing house, such draftsmen and type designers as Francesco Griffo, who created unique and unusually beautiful Latin and Greek fonts, began and acquired great skill.

In the first decades of typography in Italy, the tradition of printing antiqua was established, therefore, following the tradition, Griffo engraved a beautiful serif for Alda, imitating the handwriting of calligraphers and scribes. Undoubtedly, engraving new type drawings, Griffo was well acquainted with Greek and Roman epigraphy - the science that studies ancient and medieval inscriptions on stone, metal, wood, bone, glass and ceramic products. This is evidenced by the perfection of the forms and proportions of individual letters, the calm rhythm characteristic of the Mayusculum forms of the Greek alphabet. Thanks to the fonts, Ald's editions have acquired a unique appearance. In 1494 the first book was published in Griffo type. It was the Greek Grammar of the humanist Constantine Laskaris, and some time later (according to some data in 1495, according to others in 1496), a small elegant book in Latin "About Etna", written by Pietro Bembo, was published. The book is in quarto format, there is no title page in it. The full title of the book, typed in three lines in capital letters, appears on the opening page. The Etna colophon is carefully typed in capital letters in the form of a triangle. In this edition, Griffo experimented with typefaces. Not a single letter is repeated in its graphics, and this obviously reflects the artist's desire to make a printed book more similar to a handwritten one, where it is impossible to unify all letters. The House of Alda strived for the perfection of the form and content of the book.

In order to expand the circle of readers, Ald began to release masterpieces of the literature of Ancient and New Rome, from which it was possible to compile a collection of books in a small format. These portable in-octavo volumes, by design, were supposed to contain no less text than large volumes. For these publications, Griffo drew on the basis of Petrarch's handwriting, and then engraved italics - a type that was named after the owner of the printing house and its ideological inspirer Alda - aldino. One of the books of the small-format in-octavo series, Petrarch's Sonnets, was printed from the manuscript of the great poet, provided for this purpose by its owner Pietro Bembo.

In terms of the outline of the letters, the italic type resembled the calligraphic handwriting of handwritten books, and in beauty surpassed the handwriting of Petrarch, which, in the opinion of the publisher, should have impressed the reader. Virgil was printed in italics in 1501 and also in in-octavo format. The appearance of such publications was a completely new phenomenon in the publishing of books in Italy. Only Nicola Jenson once printed a very small prayer book, however, he did not apply his discovery to the publication of works of art. Miniature editions were not so common in the 15th century, and Ald took advantage of this, setting up their serial production and sale at a more affordable price than other books. In the face of fierce competition, Ald Manucius, like many of his contemporaries, sought exclusive privileges for his enterprise. So, in particular, he procured the right to sole possession of italics for a period of 25 years. At the same time, the publisher clearly violated the rights of the creator of the typefaces Francesco Griffo, which was the reason for the breakdown of their relationship. Griffo lost the opportunity to sell typefaces to other printers working within the Venetian Republic, and was forced to move to Fano, an area where the power of the Venetian Senate did not extend. Here he received financial assistance from the major publisher Soncino, who was one of the first to publish Petrarch in imitation of the little aldines, and then a number of in-octavo books printed with a new version of Latin italics.

There is reason to believe that Griffo took full advantage of his newfound right to dispose of his invention, and very soon pocket books, appreciated by many publishers, began to appear in different cities. Already in 1502, Lyons printers began to publish the same books; Philippe Giunta used the aldino font in 1503. The reprints faithfully reproduced Ald's editions, including the prefaces that accompanied his books. In order to protect his publications from counterfeiting, Ald introduced in 1502 an emblem with an image of a dolphin at anchor and the motto "do it slowly" (in another interpretation, "hurry slowly"). Ald himself described the distinctive features of his publications as follows: “At present, as far as I know, they print in Lyon in fonts very similar to our works by Virgil, Horace, Juvenal, Persia. Martiala, Luciana, Catullus ... - all these editions without the name of the printer, without specifying the place and year when they were completed. On the contrary, on our copies, readers will find this: in Venice, the house of Alda and the year of publication. In addition, there is no special sign on those books, but on ours there is a dolphin wrapping around an anchor ... The paper for those is the worst, and I do not know why it has a fetid smell, and the font has some kind of Gallic type. The capital letters are quite ugly. "

The typeface served as the only decoration for Ald's editions, and only a few of them contained illustrations. Among the aldins, the most colorfully and luxuriously designed is the Hypnerotomachia of Polyphilus (1499), a love novel by Francesco Colonna, saturated with symbolism. The format of the publication is in-folio, it has 234 sheets, 38 chapters. In the book there are 172 illustrations made in the technique of edged wood engraving. Sometimes they take up a whole strip, sometimes they are wrapped in a frill. All engravings have contour outlines, as if intended for hand coloring. The spreads are very elegantly designed, the text under the illustrations is typed figuratively in the form of an overturned triangle. Combined with beautiful fonts, rhombuses and vases, this creates a lasting impression of harmony and unity between text and illustration. "Hypnerotomachia" or "The Dream of Polyphilus" is not the only illustrated book by Alda Manutius. In 1497 he published The Roman Clockwork and The Greek Alphabet. The book "Hypnerotomachia" has been reprinted several times, and not only in Venice.

In total, Ald Manutius published about 130 titles of books, which are named after their creator, the aldins. The publisher has prepared several aldin catalogs, three of them have survived to this day. The catalogs contain prices that Ald, with his commercial flair, set almost unmistakably. The famous bibliophile Ferdinando Columbus (the son of the discoverer of America), acquiring aldins many years later, could be convinced that the price he paid was not much different from that indicated in the Alda catalog.

Aldus Pius Manutius died in Venice on February 6, 1515, and his work was continued by his son Paolo (1512-1574), the grandson of Aldus (1547-1597). Alda Manuzia's son-in-law, Andrea Torresano, also participated in the publishing house. Together, they gave the world 1,150 editions, printing 780 authors.

The merits of Alda Manucius are that he: promoted the spiritual treasures of antiquity; introduced new fonts, small format, the principle of serial production; provided high level editing; increased the level of textual training; cheapened books.

In the XV century. Cyrillic books were printed in 10 settlements - Venice, Vilna, Targovishte, etc. The first printing house was set up in Krakow in 1491. Its founder was the German master Schweipolt Fiol, who arrived here from the German land of Franconia. Here in Krakow, he was accepted as a member of the city's workshop of goldsmiths. In 1483 Fiol and Hans Jäckel purchased a stable and equipped a printing house. The fonts for the printing house were cast by Rudolf Borsdorf, a student at the University of Krakow. Having visited Moscow, he got acquainted with Slavic books and, having a good command of foundry, made the Cyril font. Only 4 books were printed in the Krakow printing house. In 1491, 2 books were published - Octoichus - the Octopus and the Book of Hours. The imprint was placed, as in handwritten books, in short afterwords. Oktoich - a book in a sheet format, has 22 eight-sheet notebooks, the last notebook consists of 6 sheets. There are 172 sheets in the book (169 in another copy). There is no foliation or signature. The Book of Hours (1491) has a quarter-sheet format and has 47 eight-sheet notebooks and one six-sheet notebook. There are 382 sheets in the book. The colophon of the Book of Hours is the same as in the Octoicha: in each of them there is an image of the coat of arms of Krakow.

In 1493 two books were published - the Lenten Triode (used in worship 70 days a year) and the Colored Triode (used in worship 50 days a year) - both in sheet format. The first book has 314 (in another copy 313) sheets, the second - 364 sheets. The Triodi has a colored frontispiece depicting the Crucifixion.

The maximum circulation of the editions was 275-300 copies. Fyol's books were typed by Ukrainian typesetters, and Mikulas Stetina and Yuriy Drohobych served as assistants.

In 1490, Fiol ended up in the dungeons of the Krakow Inquisition, and until 1492 there was a trial on charges of preaching Orthodoxy. The case at this time was led by his companions Jan Thurzo and Jan Teshnar. After his release, Fiol continued printing, but almost nothing is known about his life and work until his death in 1525.

The Krakow printing house printed books for Belarusians and Ukrainians who lived in the principality of Lithuania. Reliance on the gentry is the path to influence on Muscovite Rus, where the vast and extremely capacious book market remained undeveloped, in which there was no competition.

The second Slavic printing house was founded by outstanding statesmen Ivan Crnoevich and his son Montenegrin ruler Djurdzh Crnoevich in Cetinje. The talented monk Macarius worked here, about whom little can be said. Most likely, he studied in Venice. In Montenegro, he published 4 books: Octoih the First Herald - a full text containing all Sunday and everyday services. It was published on January 4, 1494. The second book, the Psalter with the Investigation, appeared on September 22, 1495. Octoikh five-page book is another book of this printing house, preserved in fragments. The fourth book was the Prayer Book (Trebnik). A handwritten copy of the book of the Four Gospels that has not come down to us was also found, but whether it was printed in a Montenegrin printing house is a moot point.

In 1496 the Turks expelled the Crnoevichs from Montenegro. Macarius left with them, and the book, printed in Cyrillic in the period 1508-1512, signed by the same name Macarius, began to be published in Targovishte.

The octoi pentagonal was preserved in an incomplete form - only 38 leaves (in another instance, 41 leaves). The book was printed on a sheet of 2719 cm in size. The book has excellent alignment of lines, with the first notebook printed in a smaller format, and all subsequent ones in a large format. This was done in order to reduce the volume of the book and save expensive paper by increasing the format of the page. There is no foliation in Oktoikha, like in other Montenegrin publications of Macarius. The signature is affixed in the center of the lower margin of the front side of the first and the back side of the last sheet of each notebook. The edition supposedly contained 34 eight-sheet notebooks.

Oktoich was conceived as a particularly luxurious edition. Each new section began with a new odd line. An even stripe was occupied by a frontispiece engraved on wood. The illustrations were printed from two boards: the first one contains a patterned frame with an arch, the second one has a story centerpiece. The main part of the frame is occupied by a floral ornament with petal flower rosettes. Images of birds, a griffin, a lion, and a dragon are woven into the fabric of the ornament. There is also the coat of arms of the rulers of Montenegro - Crnojevici. The decoration is complemented by two initials enclosed in rectangular frames, with which the texts of the first two sections begin. The following sections open with cast letters.

Summing up, we can say that the processes of editing and printing books, ensuring their design and binding were concentrated in the hands of the first printers (they also acted as publishers). The publisher maintained a staff of scribes who were instructed to make copies of valuable originals, and also invited scholars to work with the text. Publishers did the reading, page-by-page selection of printed sheets from the printing house and bookbinding either in specialized workshops to order, or hired workers to carry out these operations. The publishers were closely associated with the book trade and were large wholesale merchants with extensive, sometimes international connections. A staff of carters was maintained to deliver the books. Clerks or sales agents were hired to run business in the bookseller.

The first printed books, published before 1500, are called incunabula. They were similar to handwritten ones, as they were printed in fonts based on samples from local schools of calligraphy. Each typographer strove to create his own typefaces. Before 1500, there were about 2,000 types of typefaces. The first printed books were made without paragraphs, the text was not divided into chapters. The most important sections of the book were printed on the red line. They did not have a title page indicating the time and place of the book's release. These data were placed at the end of the book, in the colophon, where the place and date, the name of the typographer, or the mark of the publisher, and the title of the book were indicated. The first printed colophon appeared in the Mainz Psalter by Fust-Schaeffer in 1457. The title page was first introduced by Erhard Ratdolt in 1476, when he published the Astronomical Calendar of Regiomontanus in Venice. In 1500, the first title page appeared in Leipzig, in its content close to the modern one.

Since 1470, foliation is introduced, that is, the numbering of sheets, and at the end of the 15th century. Ald Manucius introduced pagination - pagination. The incunabula had Custodians and signatures. The signatures indicated the number of the notebook with a specific letter, and each sheet of the notebook was designated with a number. From 1472 the Custodians and signatures were introduced into the set.

A characteristic feature of the incunabula is the signet, the personal mark of the printer, placed after the colophon. The illustrations were printed from wooden boards. The predominant formats of the first printed books were in-folio, in-quarto, in-octavo.

With the invention of printing and the appearance of circulation, the book trade in the second half of the 15th century. separated from book publishing. Selling printed books is becoming a lucrative business that generates substantial income. Professional booksellers were called "book carriers" because books were carried in barrels and sacks to fairs. The books were sold in unbound notebooks, and the binding was made by order of the owners. In the second half of the 15th century. trade in printed books has been greatly developed in Germany. At this time, the book fairs in Frankfurt am Main and Leipzig acquired particular importance. Foreign visitors to the fairs came from Strasbourg, Basel, and other cities in Germany, and the names of German booksellers were known far beyond the borders of the country - in England, France, Italy, Poland, and Hungary.

Several groups can be distinguished among booksellers. Along with printers, trade was carried out by craftsmen, whose activities were closely related to the printing business. In Leipzig, 176 booksellers were listed, united in a workshop according to the nature of the products sold, among which songbooks, calendars, playing cards... The shop consisted of small traders and shopkeepers. This was also the case in Nuremberg and Munich. The position of many of the merchants was extremely precarious. Going broke, they joined the ranks of street peddlers. These were poor people, whose property was estimated at 25-60 florins, and some of them had no property at all. They received the goods from printers and larger traders.

Booksellers, whose property was between 100-200 florins, were also constantly under the threat of ruin. They ran their business on a lease basis, or worked for more wealthy merchants. This category of booksellers purchased books at fairs for the purpose of their subsequent resale.

Large merchants from among the burghers had assets of 1,000 florins. One of their sources of income was commission trading. They engaged in usury, providing loans to needy scribes. The books were sold in shops with 30 to 50 titles. Large booksellers in Frankfurt, Paris, Venice had a staff of booksellers.

Booksellers were closely associated with printers and typographers. One form of collaboration was a partnership formed to publish one or more books. For the duration of the agreement, the bookseller became a partner on the terms of participation by means, or obligations to distribute the circulation. The printer usually bore the bulk of publishing costs. Accordingly, he owned a large share of the income.

Known since 1466 print advertisements for books... She appeared in Strasbourg. The announcement of the books in 1470 already contains an indication of prices, circulations, and has annotations. In Mainz, Schaeffer gave wide advertising for his publications, in Rome - Svenheim and Pannartz. In 1474, the prospectus for the future edition, which was called inzerata, was prepared by the Nuremberg publisher Müller. Mentelin also produced inzerats. In the XV century. appeared fair catalogs... Book prices were high. For example, the Chapel was worth half a stone burgher's house. Publishers-typographers avoided middlemen in order to lower book prices. They also set up sales representatives in other cities and developed foreign trade, especially for the small states of Europe.

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