Military intervention during the Civil War. Forgotten occupation. American intervention in Russia during the Civil War. Division of spheres of influence
1.Civil War (G.V.) - a way of resolving acute contradictions (class, national, religious) between various socio-political forces within the country by means of armed violence.
Intervention- violent interference of one or several states in the internal affairs of another state.
2.Temporal and spatial characteristics: The exact time of the beginning and end of G.V. it is rather difficult to indicate, but when determining the chronological framework, there are two periodizations. First: summer 1918 - 1920 This periodization is accepted by the majority of historians and prevails in educational and scientific literature. In this case, we are talking about highlighting a special period in the history of the Soviet state, the period of intervention and civil war, when the military question became the main, fundamental issue on which the fate of the revolution depended. Second periodization: 1917 - 1922 - is associated with the concept of civil war as a form of class struggle. And this struggle began immediately after October 1917. Suffice it to recall the Kerensky-Krasnov mutiny, the speeches of Kaledin, Dutov, Kornilov, Alekseev — all these were the centers of G.V. By 1921 - 1922 - refers to the elimination of the last centers of resistance to Soviet power.
3. Prerequisites and reasons G.V. a) The reasons for G.V. - the ultimate aggravation of social-class and political contradictions, which led to confrontation, and then to a split of society into warring camps. b) Inability and unwillingness to solve the problem peacefully (on both sides).
4. The beginning of G.V. and intervention(first half of 1918) The Volunteer Army (former tsarist officers - Alekseev, Kornilov, Denikin) is formed on the Don, which goes to the Kuban - "Ice Campaign". At the same time, White Cossack units were formed in the Don, South Urals, Kuban and Siberia. In parallel, the beginning of the intervention. December 1917 - Romania occupies Bessarabia. February 1918 - Germany, Turkey, Austria invade Russia. Spring 1918 - British, French and American troops land in Murmansk and Arkhangelsk, planning an offensive on Petrograd and Moscow. Soviet power was overthrown here. Japanese, American, British troops are in the Far East. In the summer of 1918, the British intervention in Transcaucasia began and Central Asia... Germany occupied Ukraine, captured Rostov and Taganrog, violating the terms of the Brest Peace. German troops invaded Belarus, the Baltics, Crimea and Transcaucasia. In May 1918, a revolt of the Czechoslovak corps began. In September 1918, with the capture of Baku by the British, a ring of fronts closed around the Soviet Republic.
5. Red and white terror... Terror is suppression, elimination of political opponents by violent method. Violence has become the norm. Both the Reds and the Whites had military punitive organs. Wherever riots broke out, the victims, first of all, were the Bolshevik leaders. The Bolsheviks acted no less harshly. In Yekaterinburg, with the approach of the Czechoslovak corps, in the face of widespread anti-Soviet riots, the royal family was shot (on the night of July 16-17). The Social Revolutionaries killed Volodarsky and Uritsky. August 30, 1918 - Lenin is wounded. On September 5, 1918, the Council of People's Commissars adopted a resolution "On the Red Terror". All persons involved in White Guard organizations, conspiracies and revolts were subject to execution. For 1918-1919 more than 9 thousand people were shot by the Cheka.
6. Strengthening of the Red Army (K.A.) and organization of defense (summer-autumn 1918)... Creation of a new army (late 1917 - early 1918). April 22, 1918 - a decree on compulsory general military training was issued. In May, the All-Russian Central Executive Committee issued a decree "On the transition to a general mobilization of workers and the poorest peasants." The Red Army is the backbone (300 thousand people), members of the CPSU (b). By the end of G.V. in K.A. - 5.5 million people (700 thousand workers). The army served 50 thousand officers and generals of the old army (military experts) - Shaposhnikov, Egorov, Tukhachevsky, Karbyshev. In the fall of 1918, K.A. - the positions of military commissars were introduced. September 2, 1918 - The Soviet Republic was declared a military camp by a resolution of the All-Russian Central Executive Committee. The Revolutionary Military Council of the Republic (RVSR) was created, headed by Trotsky. The post of commander-in-chief of the armed forces of the republic was established. On November 30, 1918, the Council of Workers 'and Peasants' Defense was created, headed by Lenin. Soviet military leaders - Budyonny, Voroshilov, Blucher, Lazo, Kotovsky, Parkhomenko, Frunze, Chapaev, Shchors, Yakir.
7. Military operations summer-autumn 1918... In the second half of 1918, Denikin's Volunteer Army inflicted a number of serious defeats on the Red Army. In November 1918, Krasnov's Don army, having broken through the Southern Front, began to advance northward. In December, her offensive was stopped, and at the beginning of 1919 K.A. managed to launch a counteroffensive. Belochekhs in the Middle Volga region are trying to break into the center of the country. The Eastern Front was created. In heavy battles K.A. liberates Kazan, Samara, Simbirsk. Northern Front (autumn 1918) - whites and interventionists stopped in the region of Kotlas and Vologda.
8. Military operations at the end of 1918 - beginning of 1919... The military intervention and blockade of the Soviet Republic is intensifying. Allied troops landed in Odessa, Sevastopol, Vladivostok. On November 18, 1918, Admiral Kolchak carried out a coup in Omsk and established a military dictatorship. Kolchak took the title of supreme ruler Of the Russian state and the rank of Commander-in-Chief. Denikin became his deputy in the south of the country. Kolchak creates an army of 400 thousand people. and begins active operations on the Eastern Front. Eastern Front - battles with varying success. Northern Front - Americans and General Miller - dictatorship in Arkhangelsk. Southern Front - Krasnov's troops are defeated, and the Don is liberated. Denikin begins an offensive in the North Caucasus. January 1919 - The Volunteer Army and the Cossack troops of the Don and Kuban united into the armed forces of southern Russia under the command of Denikin.
9. Military operations in the second half of 1919 - the first half of 1920.
Southern Front: The main danger from the South - General Denikin (110 thousand people). The Entente provides him with massive support. May-June 1919 - Denikin goes over to the offensive along the entire Southern Front (Kharkov, Yekaterinoslav, Tsaritsyn are taken). July 3, 1919 - Denikin gives the order to attack Moscow. On the right flank - the Caucasian army, in the center - the Don, on the left - the Volunteer. Soviet power: "All for the fight against Denikin!" In the rear, Denikin is restoring the old order, which leads to the growth of the strike and partisan movement. August 15, 1919 - K.A. begins a counteroffensive. After temporary successes, it was suspended due to lack of strength. White inflicted a counterblow: Kursk, Voronezh, Oryol were taken - they approached Tula. The most critical days for Soviet power have come. Mid-October - fierce fighting on the southern front. Mid-November - The Red Army strikes at the junction of the Volunteer and Don armies. The main striking force is the 1st Cavalry Army of Budyonny. January 1920 - Tukhachevsky took Tsaritsyn, Rostov-on-Don, the last stronghold of the whites - Novosibirsk. Denikin transferred command to Wrangel and went abroad.
Petrograd front: Summer 1919 - at the height of the fighting on the Eastern Front, the troops of General Yudenich went on the offensive against Petrograd. From the sea they were supported by the English fleet. In May, Yudenich took Gdov, Yamburg and Pskov. In mid-June, the Red Army launched an offensive. The immediate threat to Petrograd was removed, but, thanks to the efforts of the allies, Yudenich's army soon restored its combat capability. Autumn 1919 - Yudenich begins the second offensive against Petrograd, there is a danger of surrendering the city. But on October 21 K.A. begins an offensive along the entire front. Yudenich is defeated, the British fleet is leaving the waters of the Baltic.
Eastern front: Autumn 1919 - K.A. begins a new offensive on the Eastern Front. November 14 - Omsk is taken - the capital of Kolchak. On January 6, 1920, the remnants of Kolchak's army were defeated near Krasnoyarsk. He and his prime minister were shot. The Entente evacuates its troops from Russia, and Japan withdraws them to Primorye. K.A. conducts offensive operations, but at the boundary of Lake Baikal they are suspended (to avoid war with Japan). Spring 1920 - the decision to create the Far Eastern Republic (FER) - a buffer state between Soviet Russia and Japan.
Northern front: In early 1920, Arkhangelsk and Murmansk were liberated. Intervention and counter-revolution are over.
Defeat of counter-revolution in Transcaucasia and Central Asia. The Azerbaijan SSR, the Armenian SSR, and the Georgian SSR were created. The Khorezm and Bukhara NSR were created in Central Asia.
10. The final stage of the civil war.
War with Poland... In the spring of 1920, Poland began military operations against Soviet Russia. The Western (Tukhachevsky) and Southwestern (Egorov) fronts were formed. In the summer of 1920, they went on the offensive, but the Western Front suffered a crushing defeat near Warsaw, and the Red Army was forced to retreat again. In March 1921, a peace treaty was signed with Poland.
Defeat Wrangel... Leaving Russia forever in April 1920, Denikin handed over power to General Wrangel. By the beginning of June, Wrangel was entrenched in the Crimea, having at his disposal a significant land army and navy. The offensive of Wrangel's troops began in May 1920. The Southern Front was again created, which was faced with the task of liberating the Crimea before the beginning of winter. In September and October K.A. successfully restrained the onslaught of Wrangel, who was trying to unite with the White Poles. At the end of October, in Northern Tavria, the main forces of Wrangel were defeated, parts of K.A. reached Perekop. On the night of November 7, 1920, parts of K.A. forced the Sivash, and led the offensive to the rear of the impregnable Perekop positions. At the same time, an attack on these positions through the Turkish Wall began. Perekop was taken. After its capture, other positions of the Wrangelites fell as well. By November 17, the Crimea was completely cleared of whites, the Southern Front was liquidated. The remnants of Wrangel's troops (about 145 thousand) were evacuated abroad on foreign ships.
11. Results of G.V.: Human losses - about 8 million. people: victims of hunger, disease, terror and war. Losses from 1918 to 1923: 13 million people. Material losses: 50 billion gold rubles. 2-2.5 million people emigrated. 200 thousand families of Russians were left homeless. Industrial production fell: to 4-20% in relation to 1913. The agricultural sector has been halved. Degradation of transport, destruction of internal and external economic ties, a sharp decline in culture and morality. The victory of the Bolsheviks marked the beginning of the formation of a totalitarian regime in Soviet Russia.
Causes of the Civil War.
1. The collapse of the autocracy. The coming of the Bolsheviks to power by armed means;
2. Sharp contradictions between the Bolsheviks and other left-wing parties;
3. The economic policy of the Bolsheviks;
I. Reasons for the intervention.
1.Economic and geopolitical interests European powers. The desire to destroy Russia;
2. Continuation of hostilities between the Entente and Germany in 1918;
3. The struggle of the British and French (since the summer of 1918) with the Bolsheviks. Non-acceptance by the Entente countries of the slogan of world revolution, nationalization of property, refusal of the Bolsheviks to pay the debts of the tsarist government;
II. The contradiction between the Bolsheviks on the eve and during the Civil War: the alignment of forces.
1. Moderate socialists (right-wing Socialist-Revolutionaries, Mensheviks, who created their governments in Samara, Omsk, Tomsk);
2. Extremely left socialists, former allies of the Bolsheviks (anarchists, left Socialist-Revolutionaries);
3. White movement: basic requirements: convocation of the Constituent Assembly, protection of property rights of citizens;
III. The main stages of the civil war.
1. General periodization:
A. May - November 1918;
G. May - November 1920;
2. The first stage (May-November 1918):
Anti-Bolshevik uprisings;
The critical situation of the Red Army by the end of the summer of 1918. (75% of the territory of Soviet Russia is in the hands of anti-Bolshevik forces). Creation of the Revolutionary Military Council under the chairmanship of Trotsky on September 2, 1918. Organization of 4 fronts, the creation of the Council of Workers 'and Peasants' Defense, headed by Lenin on November 30, 1918;
A. Cancellation by the Council of People's Commissars of the Brest Peace; military actions of the Red Army in Belarus and Ukraine, in Latvia and Lithuania; the creation of Bolshevik governments there;
B. Counter-offensive by the White forces of the Entente and the Polish army of Galleri;
B. Intervention (Black Sea, White Sea, Far East);
4. The third stage (March 1919 - spring 1920):
Yudenich's offensives on Petrograd (spring, summer and September 1919). The Entente's proposals to the Bolsheviks and whites to conclude peace and divide Russia into two parts (1919);
Kolchak's offensive (March 1919). The defeat of Kolchak by the Reds (in May - June 1919);
Denikin's offensive (May - October 1919);
Raid Mamontov (September 1919). Correction of the course of the Bolsheviks in relation to the middle peasant; mistakes of whites in their policy towards the peasantry. Creation of a cavalry army by the Reds. Yegorlyk operation - defeat of Denikin;
5. The fourth stage (May - November 1920):
A. "Russian army" Wrangel;
B. Storm of Perekop and the capture of Crimea by the 6th shock army and the Makhnovists (November 1920);
B. Soviet-Polish war in 1920-21;
G. Defeat of the Bukhara Emirate (August - September 1920);
6. Civil war in the Far East:
A. Formation of the Far Eastern Republic (April 1920);
C. Counteroffensive of the people's revolutionary army under the command of Blucher. Victory at Volochaevka; evacuation of Japanese troops by November 1; the entry of the FER into Soviet Russia (November 15, 1922);
IV. The reasons for the victory of the Bolsheviks and the defeat of the whites.
1. Provision of small and middle peasants by the Bolsheviks; miscalculations of whites in their policy towards the peasantry;
2. The success of the Bolsheviks in creating a mass army (up to 5 million) and its command staff (attracting tsarist generals and officers, 40 thousand);
3. The creation of a solid rear by the Bolsheviks; the control of the Bolsheviks over the industrial center of the country;
4. Guerrilla movement;
5. Skillful combination of international and patriotic motives by the Bolsheviks in their propaganda;
6. Absence of a single center for whites; disunity of actions of forces;
7. The small number of the White Army in comparison with the Red Army;
8. The inflexibility of the leadership of the whites in relations with the Cossacks and the national outskirts;
9. The position of the representatives of the Entente, focused on the protraction of the Civil War and the maximum weakening of Russia;
V. Consequences of the Civil War for Russia.
1. Destruction of the economy (damage - 50 billion gold rubles);
2. Death in hostilities from red and white terror, from disease and hunger about 10-12 million people;
3. Emigration of a huge part of the elite (more than 2 million people);
Vi. The significance of the civil war for the Bolshevik regime.
1. Suppression by the Bolsheviks not only of whites, but also of their opponents of the socialist camp;
2. Militarization of the party;
3. Maximum centralization and hierarchization of the party; the creation of the Constituent Distribution Departments in the Central Committee of the RCP (b) (1920), the extension of their activities to public administration (1922) - the birth of the nomenclature;
The Civil War in Russia was, on the one hand, a consequence of the actions of the Bolsheviks and their policies in the countryside; on the other hand, resistance to the Bolsheviks from both the socialist party and representatives of the old classes. The Bolsheviks dispersed the Constituent Assembly; thus opposed themselves to a significant part of the country's population.
The peculiarity of the Civil War in Russia was its intertwining with the military intervention of the Entente countries, which from the very beginning had as its goal the weakening of Russia; and at some point began to pursue the goal of dismembering Russia.
In December 1917. England and France signed an agreement "on the division of the European part of Russia into zones of influence." In January 1918. Romania captured Bessarabia. In February, the Turks brought their troops into the Transcaucasus. That is, the jackals began to tear up the body of Russia.
Immediately after the conclusion of the Brest Peace (March 1918), the first contingents of the troops of England and France, the USA and Japan appeared in Russia. Officially, they were invited by Trotsky to fight the Germans. But these contingents were small and could not seriously influence the political military situation in the country.
How did the civil war start?
The civil war began on May 26, 1918. the mutiny in Chelyabinsk of the Czechoslovak corps (about 35-40 thousand people).
What kind of corps was it and why did it end up in Siberia? Those Slavs who were either captured or deserted from the army of Austria-Hungary; on the territory of Russia they expressed a desire to fight against the Germans, and from them the Czechoslovak Corps was created, which was formally considered part of the French army. The Czechoslovak corps decided to move to the Far East, cross the Pacific Ocean and find themselves on the Western Front. At this time, a Peace Treaty was suddenly concluded between Germany, Austria-Hungary and Russia. And the Germans asked to hand over those who were captured. Then Trotsky sent a telegram to the authorities in Chelyabinsk "to disarm the Czechoslovak corps and hand over to the German comrades." But since the Slavic comrades understood that they were threatened by the Austro-Hungarian comrades, they decided not to go to death, revolted and overthrew the Red government in Chelyabinsk.
This was a signal for the overthrow of the authorities along the entire line, where the echelons were stretched out. 130 anti-Soviet, anti-Bolshevik, peasant uprisings broke out.
In their political views, the leadership of the Czechoslovak Corps were moderate socialists. It should be noted that the civil war began between socialists and moderate socialists; and then red and white were added.
In Samara, a part of the Constituent Assembly created its own government under the name "Committee of Constituent Assembly Members" or KOMUCH. Another part of the socialists in Tomsk created a provisional Siberian government. That is, a whole series of moderately socialist or bourgeois-monarchist governments arose. It must be emphasized that they can be considered bourgeois-monarchist only conditionally. The fact is that over 90% of whites were not supporters of the monarchy; they were supporters of the Constituent Assembly. Therefore, when the Bolsheviks said: "The Whites want to restore autocratic power in Russia," they deceived the population.
By the end of the summer of 1918. the position of the Red Army became critical. And although in the summer of 1918. the Bolshevik government announced "compulsory military service" and the size of the army increased to 800 thousand people, the quality was very weak and there was massive desertion. In response, the Bolsheviks introduced a system of "hostage", but it worked only for the officers.
At Trotsky's insistence, about 30-40 thousand were brought in to command the army. former tsarist officers, but each tsarist officer had an overseer, "political commissar".
As Trotsky would later note, the infusion of these officers was one of the main reasons for the Red Army's victory. But these fruits came later, but at first it was very bad.
In August 1918. at the Supreme Council of the National Economy a Commission for the production of military equipment was organized. And here the Bolsheviks were very lucky. The fact is that the main warehouses were in Petrograd (leather flight jackets), and when the Cheka was created, it was necessary to somehow dress the Chekists, and they were given leather jackets.
That is, all warehouses with clothes, ammunition, provisions were stored in the center; and the Bolsheviks controlled the center. In addition, many railways were laid in the center, and troops could be transferred quickly.
The Revolutionary Military Council was created with the main command and headquarters, and four fronts were formed. The order on all these appointments was carried out by everyone, except for the military council of the North Caucasian district. Voroshilov and Minin (with their headquarters in Tsaritsyn) entered there. And here a very serious clash took place between Stalin and Trotsky. And at Trotsky's insistence, Voroshilov and Stalin were recalled. Stalin lost here. From that moment on, the enmity between Stalin and Trotsky takes on an absolutely open character.
On November 13, the NSC annulled the Brest Peace and threw the Red Army into the Ukraine, Belarus and the Baltic states. As a result, in November - December 1918. Bolshevik governments arose in Ukraine, Latvia, Lithuania and Belarus. This led to a counter-offensive by the whites, the Poles, and, of course, the Entente intervened.
Meanwhile, after the defeat of Germany, the forces of the Entente intensified in Russia to fight the Bolsheviks. But at the same time, Entente diplomats and intelligence officers also contacted the Bolshevik leadership (they played on two fronts).
At the end of November 1918. An Anglo-French squadron of 32 pennants appeared off the Black Sea coast of Russia. The British landed in Batumi; in Odessa and Sevastopol - the French. By February 1919. the force of the interventionists in the south of Russia totaled 130 thousand people; in the Far East - 150 thousand people, and in the North 20 thousand people. However, the soldiers and sailors did not want to fight, their command was afraid of their revolutionization.
Already in April 1919. the evacuation of the invaders began. In a year, not a single foreign soldier was in the European part of the country. Only the Japanese remained in the Far East.
Thus, the importance of the intervention should not be exaggerated. It is worth talking about the serious interference of foreign powers in the course of the war process.
The third stage, when the main events in the Civil War took place (March 1918 - spring 1920). In the spring of 1918. the offensive of General Yudenich's corps on Petrograd began. On June 10, the Central Committee of the party recognized the Petrograd Front as of prime importance. Reserves were transferred here, and in June Yudenich was stopped. I must say that the Bolsheviks crushed him simply by quantity. In September 1919. Yudenich made a new attempt, and in October the threat of capture loomed over Petrograd.
In March 1919. 300 thousand army Kolchak (who declared himself in November 1918 the Supreme Government of Russia), began an offensive along a wide front from the Urals to the Volga. At the same time, Denikin's army was moving towards Saratov. And if these two armies were united, then the chances of victory would be very high. But Kolchak hurried to enter alone, and the Bolsheviks defeated him under the general leadership of Frunze.
At the end of April 1919. The Red Army went on the offensive; White did not have time to regroup his forces and create the planned “triple shield”. In June, the Red Army liberated Ufa. Kolchak's army began to retreat and crumbled. In February 1920. Kolchak was shot. This is how Denikin's epic began.
Back in the spring of 1919. Denikin launched an offensive. And in the summer of 1919. the southern front became the main theater of military operations in the Civil War. On July 3, General Denikin, at the head of a hundred thousandth army, began to move towards Moscow. By mid-autumn, he took Kursk and Oryol. Denikin controlled the territory of 820 thousand square kilometers. with a population of 42 million. The Bolsheviks began to prepare to go into an illegal position. The most nervous of them began to burn their membership cards and restore bourgeois acquaintances.
In August-September, General Mamontov's corps raided the rear of the southern front. Mamontov broke through the front and went along the red rear. The real fighting lasted only a week. Because during this week the Whites captured a huge amount of gold, jewelry, icons confiscated by the Chekists. The Mamontovs put all this in the baggage train and decided to return home. They were chased by the Reds. Cossacks entered Russian history with a wagon train and left history with a wagon train (betraying the whites).
In October 1919. Denikin had difficulties in two respects: first, the Cossacks left; secondly, he very much stretched the line of attack; in addition, the disintegration of the white army began.
The reaction of the Bolsheviks to Denikin's successes was the formation of cavalry, a cavalry army. Trotsky's slogan was put forward: “Proletarians! On a horse! " Dumenko's equestrian corps was created. In December 1919. This army captured Kharkov and Kiev; and in February 1920. - Odessa.
In the second half of February - the first half of March 1920. under the leadership of Tukhachevsky, the Reds defeated the Denikinites, who had to be evacuated to the Crimea.
Fourth stage. Spring 1920
Wrangel became the new commander-in-chief. In the army, he had from 25 to 30 thousand people. The Bolsheviks at that time had an army of almost 5 million people. And they could simply overwhelm with numbers, not knowledge.
The French proposed to Wrangel to act together with the Poles, who at that time were at war with Soviet Russia. But Wrangel, who proceeded from the idea of a "united, indivisible Russia" and understood that the Poles would demand concessions, refused.
In June, Wrangel landed troops in the Kuban. This offensive was repulsed. But in October, the Reds created a powerful fist, under the leadership of Frunze (army of 130 thousand people), to which Makhno joined. And in November, the Sixth Shock Army crossed the Rotten Swamp Sivash and captured Perekop.
Result: victory in essence in the civil war, defeat of the white army. The Bolsheviks won because they turned out to be the best politicians.
Highly important point from point of view further development the Bolshevik regime was that "the genesis of the system determines its functioning." The Bolsheviks took shape as a party during the Civil War. Two things: rigid centralization, discipline and militarization of the party. That is, the party is a paramilitary organization; no deviations. This was the only way to win. A very large role was played by the presence of generals and officers, who bet on the Bolsheviks as "re-creators of the future empire." And as practice has shown, they did not lose.
There was one more thing that was very important. The next group of Soviet society was called the "nomenklatura". The nomenclature was formed in 1920-22. Since it was necessary to very quickly and mobilely dispose of personnel, the Bolsheviks created the Constituent Distribution Department (Accounting and Distribution Department). At first, it applied only to party positions. That is, a list of positions was prescribed and the surname of the person who could take this position, and who could replace him in case of anything, was written against each. This is the nomenclature. In addition, in 1922. the principle of the Constituent Distribution Office was extended to the entire system of power. The nomenclature was canceled only in 1989.
That is, we can say that the Civil War, in fact, shaped the Bolshevik Party as a party of a new type; as the party that took all the power. And the Bolsheviks felt very well that they could lead the country. The only problem was that some of the Bolsheviks were waiting for the World Revolution.
Foreign intervention had a significant impact on the balance of power during the Civil War. In the period 1918-1921, the countries of the Quadruple Alliance and the Entente, the opposing sides in the First World War, actively intervened in hostilities on the territory of Russia. About 14 countries took part in the intervention.
Historians call the reasons for the intervention the stake of the anti-Bolshevik regime on foreign support during the Civil War, the desire of the Bolsheviks to implement the idea of a world socialist revolution. In turn, the European states did not want to allow Bolshevik influence on their territories.
Many researchers believe that the goals of foreign intervention in Russia were ambiguous - this opinion is widespread in foreign historiography. According to the American researcher Richard Pipes, the overthrow of the Bolsheviks was not the main goal of the intervention. At the time of the beginning of the landing in Murmansk, the Entente countries had more serious problems - the First World War continued. The interventionists wanted one thing - to force the Bolshevik Russia to negotiate on the terms of the Entente. According to the historian, the interventionists had no intention of capturing Russia or turning its entire territory into the sphere of influence of several states.
The help of the interventionists, provided to the White Army, did not say that they support the ideas of the "whites" - the restoration of a great and indivisible Russia and the creation of a united anti-Bolshevik front. The "Whites" turned to the Entente countries, guided by agreements that were signed by tsarist Russia, joining this military-political bloc. "Whites" hoped for the fulfillment of obligations by the allies. Russia saw a strong competitor, so the weakening of this state was beneficial to many. Each state, first of all, is guided by its own national interests, therefore, the support of the interventionists was aimed at suppressing the political and economic influence of Russia, by recognizing and supporting new state entities which began to form after the February Revolution.
Russian historians note that the Entente actually betrayed the White Army, gradually ceasing to provide support in the war with the “Reds”. In order to achieve its own interests, the Entente cooperated with both the "Reds" and the "Whites." Asserting this, the historian N. Narochnitskaya notes that in Russia the Entente saw only a strategic testing ground, necessary to assert its own power and create a market for the sale of goods.
Foreign interventionists, in whom the "whites" saw support, were another danger to Russian statehood. Japan, Turkey and Romania participated in the intervention with the aim of seizing part of the territories of the former Russian Empire, the Entente countries - sought to increase their economic influence.
The civil war and foreign intervention were preceded by the events of 1917 - the overthrow of the monarchical system in Russia, the coming to power of the Bolsheviks and the beginning of reforms in the state. According to the "Decree on Peace" adopted by the Bolsheviks after the October Revolution, Russia proposed to all participants in the First World War to conclude an armistice, but the proposal was accepted only by the states of the Quadruple Alliance. In early December 1917, a conference was held with the participation of Great Britain, France, the United States and their allies in the First World War. The purpose of the meeting is to divide the former Russian Empire into spheres of influence, to establish contacts with the emerging national democratic governments. Thus, the Ukrainian territory and the Crimean peninsula fell into the sphere of influence of France, and the Caucasus, the Cossack regions fell into the sphere of influence of France. In early January 1918, US President Woodrow Wilson announced the need to withdraw German troops from the territory of the former Russian Empire. The leader also noted the importance of recognizing the independence of the Baltic states and Ukraine.
In February 1918, the German and Austro-Hungarian armies occupied part of the territories of Ukraine, Belarus, and the Baltic states. To protect the power, the Bolsheviks agreed to sign a separate peace with the countries of the Quadruple Alliance in early March 1918. Under the terms of the Brest-Litovsk Peace, Russia withdrew from the First World War and admitted defeat.
The war between the countries of the Quadruple Alliance and the Entente continued. Great Britain offered Russia, in which the Civil War had already begun, assistance and protection from possible German attacks. The proposal was accepted, and the British Marines landed in Murmansk on 6 March. The number of soldiers - 150 people who arrived on the ship "Glory". This day is considered the date of the beginning of foreign intervention in Russia. During March-May 1918, French and American cruisers arrived in Murmansk.
In the summer of 1918, the interventionists actively supplied the "whites" with food and equipment, provided military assistance, but did not engage in direct battles with the "reds". After the end of World War II, the German army was withdrawn from the territory of Russia.
At the beginning of 1919, V. Lenin and G. Chicherin handed over to the interventionists of France, England and the United States a proposal to leave the country, in exchange for the Bolsheviks' promise to return the pre-war debts to Russia and recognize the independence of some Transcaucasian countries, Poland and Finland. The proposal was considered at the Paris Peace Conference and adopted, which resulted in the evacuation of American, British and French troops from Murmansk and Arkhangelsk. The invaders left Russia in 1920, holding out only in the Far East until 1922 - these were Japanese troops.
During the foreign intervention of 1918-1921, Russia was divided into zones of influence. If the plans of the interventionists were carried out, our country would simply not exist within its present borders.
The beginning of the intervention
Immediately after the "Decree on Peace" and the armistice between Soviet Russia and Germany on the Eastern Front, on December 3, 1917, the United States, France, England and their allied countries decided to divide the former Russian Empire into zones of interest.
It was about establishing ties with local national governments and declaring the independence of Ukraine, Belarus, the Caucasus, Poland, Finland and other Baltic countries, as well as the Far East. A month later, at a special convention, England and France divided Russia into spheres of invasion.
The French zone was supposed to consist of Bessarabia, Ukraine and Crimea, and the English zone was to consist of the territories of the Cossacks, the Caucasus, Armenia, Georgia and Kurdistan. The American government, remaining in the shadows, accepted Secretary of State Lansing's report on the provision of covert support for British and French initiatives.
As the historian Kirmel writes, the appendix to the map of New Russia, compiled by the US State Department, said: “All of Russia should be divided into large natural regions, each with its own distinct economic life. At the same time, no region should be independent enough to form a strong state. "
The threat to the integrity of Russia came not only from the West, but also from the East. On February 26, 1918, Allied Commander-in-Chief Marshal Foch declared that "America and Japan must meet Germany in Siberia - they have the opportunity to do so." This was the beginning of agitation for Japanese military intervention in the Far East. Already on March 5, the Daily mail insisted on the necessity of inviting Japan to Siberia and the creation of an "Asian Russia", as opposed to the European one, under the rule of the Soviets.
Discord in the Allied camp
And yet, for a long time, the Allied troops did not dare to invade Russia. First, the unfinished war with Germany created too great risks for the dispersal of human resources. Secondly, for a long time no one took the October coup and the Bolsheviks seriously, expecting that the latter would fall after the defeat of Germany.
According to the American historian Richard Pipes, Lenin and his party were unknown quantities, and no one took their utopian plans and statements seriously. The prevailing opinion, especially after Brest-Litovsk, was that the Bolsheviks were Germany's henchmen and would disappear from the political arena at the same time as the end of the war.
Therefore, in late 1917 - early 1918, the "allies" took a cautious course and preferred, for the most part, to stay on the sidelines. In addition, for a long time there was no consensus among the Entente countries about open intervention. In particular, she was opposed by american president Wilson, who considered as paramount only the formation of independent states in the border regions of Russia, and considered intervention as unnecessary interference in the affairs of another country.
His ardent opponents were Churchill, who, after the General Staff of the High Command of the Entente armies adopted the resolution "On the need for Allied intervention in Russia" and the occupation of Murmansk by Britain, saw in a weakened Russia, in particular, an excellent sales market and a cheap source of raw materials.
This made it possible to freely compete with Germany, whose industry was better. Many American politicians also actively advocated the introduction of troops and the dismemberment of Russia. In particular, the American ambassador provoked his president with statements that the White movement was losing patience, waiting for an allied intervention, and could come to an agreement with Germany.
It must be said that Germany also did not promise longevity to its new ally. The German ambassador Mirbach wrote that he did not see any further point in supporting the Bolsheviks: “We are certainly standing at the bedside of a hopelessly ill person. Bolshevism will soon fall ... At the hour of the fall of the Bolsheviks, German troops must be ready to capture both capitals and begin to form a new government. " The core of the pro-German government, according to Mirbach, should have been made up of moderate Octobrists, cadets and big businessmen.
On August 27, in Berlin, new treaties were signed between Germany and an exhausted Russia. According to them, the Soviet government pledged to fight against the Entente in the European and northern parts of Russia. Germany was given control over the remnants of the Black Sea Fleet and port equipment on the Black Sea. It was also decided that if Baku is returned to Russia, a third of oil production will go to Germany. In addition, secret articles were added to the treaty, according to which the Soviet government promised to drive out the troops of the West from the territory of the country with the help of German and Finnish troops. The agreement of August 27 was the last straw in relations between the Soviet government and the West. A large-scale intervention has begun.
In the name of democracy
The West found more and more reasons to continue the intervention. At first, these were Churchill's slogans: "In the name of victory in this great war." Then they turned into loud appeals: "In the name of democracy", "assistance in the restoration of the constitutional order in Russia" and so on. At the same time, the allies were in no hurry to provide active assistance to the White movement and to free their "close neighbor" from "openly recognized enemies," according to Churchill. As the historian Kimel writes, the main difficulty was that as a result of the establishment of close relations between the white governments and the Entente, the different goals of the White Guards and European countries immediately became visible. The main stumbling block was the desire of the tsarist generals to restore "United and indivisible Russia", in which the West, especially Great Britain, saw a potential threat to its colonial lands.
The report of the parliamentary meeting of the British Parliament on November 8 and 17 states the following opinion: “The expediency of assisting Admiral Kolchak and General Denikin is controversial, since they are“ fighting for United Russia ”... It's not for me to point out whether this slogan is in line with British policy ... One of our great people , Lord Beaconsfield, saw in huge, mighty and great Russia, rolling like a glacier towards Persia, Afghanistan and India, the most formidable danger for the British Empire. " The "policy of double standards" of the allies, even without intelligence reports, was not a secret for the white generals. According to Major General Batyushin, it was enough just to read the foreign press every day to understand the true goals of the West. Denikin himself indignantly recalled in his diaries: “From Paris they often wrote to us: the help of the allies is insufficient because the struggle between the South and the East is unpopular among European democracies; that in order to gain their sympathy, two words must be said: Republic and Federation. We didn’t say these words ”.
Solidarity movement
In addition to the uncompromising position of the leaders of the White movement on the integrity of Russia, the intervention was greatly complicated by the movement of solidarity in the Entente countries in relation to Soviet Russia. The working class sympathized with the Soviets and their support resulted in mass demonstrations throughout Europe with the slogans: "Hands off Soviet Russia." They refused to equip warships for intervention, interfered with the work of factories, which in war and post-war conditions threatened a major economic crisis that would put England in dependence on the United States. Soldiers' riots were also a big problem. In 1919, the 55th infantry regiment and the French fleet on the Black Sea rebelled near Tiraspol. The war in a revolutionary country threatened to develop into a revolution in the interventionist countries.
Compromise with the Bolsheviks
The end of the First World War was definitively determined further destiny intervention. Under the terms of the Versailles Peace Treaty, many independent political entities were created on the borders of the RSFSR: the Ukrainian People's Republic, Belarus, Poland, Lithuania, Latvia, Finland, the Republic of Estonia, which was the original goal of the Entente countries. Therefore, in January 1919, at the Paris Peace Conference, it was decided to abandon a further invasion of Russian territory, limiting its assistance to the White movement only with military supplies. The latter decision was also not a generous gift. Arms had to pay in gold and grain, as a result of which the peasants suffered and the popularity of the movement for the restoration of the "old" Russia, led by white generals, was steadily declining.
At this stage of "allied relations" between the whites and the West, one might say that there was no help from the latter. The usual trade was going on - they sold surplus weapons of the allied armies under unprofitable contracts. And even then in insufficient quantities: Denikin, for example, the British delivered only a few dozen tanks, although they had thousands in service after the First World War.
There is another version that after the end of the First World War and the creation of the so-called "cordon sanitaire" around the RSFSR, the allies, despite their hostility to the new Soviet government, it was easier to find a language with the Bolsheviks, who were ready to make many compromises. In addition, the post-war economy required the restoration of previous economic ties with Russia in order to avoid major crises and social tensions. Therefore, despite the fact that the last military formations were ousted from the territory of the USSR (in the Far East) in 1925, in fact, the whole meaning of intervention for the Entente countries became obsolete after the signing of the Versailles Treaty. As for the White movement, being on the outskirts former empire, without outside help and arms supplies, they were doomed.
Introduction
The Civil War is an unforgettable chapter of our past. In numerous films, Red Army men in Budenovkas appear before us, carts with machine guns are racing, young elusive avengers "defeat enemies under the guidance of mentors in leather jackets. In general - heroism, fortitude, deeds ...
However, the Civil War is not so much fanfare and victories as the tragedy of the people, divided and fighting for life and death. Moreover, it is not about which of the opposing forces will become the winner, but which will be defeated, but about their very physical survival. Hence the special acuteness and cruelty of the struggle.
The tragic consequences of this war were the split of society into "us" and "foes", the devaluation of human life, the collapse of the economy.
The confrontation in Russian society after October 1917 led to the Civil War due to the political and ideological intransigence of various social groups, a feature of the Civil War in Russia was foreign intervention.
Purpose: to form an idea of Russia during the civil war and intervention
1. show the reasons and different points of view on the periodization of the Civil War, the specifics of foreign intervention;
2. to determine the goals and political motives of the warring parties;
3. to reveal the essence and consequences of the policy of "War Communism";
4. to reveal new approaches to the Civil War.
I. Civil War and Intervention in Russia
And I stand alone between them
In roaring flames and smoke
And with all my might
I pray for both.
Maximilian Voloshin
The October Revolution of 1917 and the subsequent political and economic measures of the Soviet government and the Bolshevik leadership led the country to a deep internal split, exacerbated the struggle of various social and political forces. The period from the spring of 1918 to 1920 was called the Civil War.
Civil war is a state of a society split in social - class, national - religious, ideological - political, moral - ethical and other relations, when violence (including armed) is the main means of resolving contradictions (not only in the struggle for power, but also simply for preservation of life).
1. The question of the chronological framework and periodization of the Civil War in Russian historiography is still ambiguous. Here is some of them:
I. V.I. Lenin identified four periods of the Civil War (October 1917 - 1922)
1. Purely political since October 1917. Until January 5, 1918. (before the dissolution of the Constituent Assembly).
2. Brest Peace.
3. Civil war from 1918 to 1920.
4. Forced termination of intervention and blockade by the Entente. 1922.
II. A number of historians share the Civil War of 1918-1920. for three periods:
The first is the summer of 1918 - March 1919. - the beginning of an armed uprising by the forces of external and internal counter-revolution and a large-scale intervention by the Entente.
III. Contemporary historian L.M. Spirin notes that Russia has experienced two Civil Wars since the overthrow of the autocracy:
2. October 1917 - 1922 At the same time, the period from the summer of 1918 to the end of 1920 stands out as the most acute. Then from 1921. - the period of the highest confrontation.
IV. The modern historian P.V. Vlobuyev believes: “It must be borne in mind that not immediately after the revolution, the struggle began to be waged for the mutual destruction of the opposing forces. The period from October 1917. Until May 1918. - the stage of the mild Civil War. There have already been cases of terror, but the mass of the people has not yet joined the struggle with soybeans. From the end of 1918 to 1919. The civil war has reached the peak of bitterness. "
V. Modern historian Yu.A. Polyakov gives his periodization of the Civil War 1917 - 1922.
February - March 1917 The violent overthrow of the autocracy and the open split of society on a social basis.
March - October 1917 Strengthening of social and political confrontation in society. The failure of the Russian democrats in their attempt to establish peace in the country.
October 1917 - March 1918 The violent overthrow of the Provisional Government and a new split in society.
March - June 1918 Terror, local military actions, the formation of the Red and White armies.
Summer 1918 - late 1920 Massive battles between regular troops, foreign intervention.
1921 - 1922 The fading of the Civil War, military operations on the outskirts of the country.
Vi. Contemporary American historian V.N. Brovkin suggests the following periodization:
1918 The collapse of the empire. The struggle of the Bolsheviks and Socialists (Mensheviks and Socialist-Revolutionaries). The beginning of the intervention, the actions of the peasants against the commissars.
1919 The year of the "whites". The offensive of the army of Denikin, Kolchak and others. The peasantry again swung towards the Bolsheviks because of the threat of the "whites" to confiscate land in favor of the landlords.
1920 - 1921 The years of "red" and "green". The victory of the Bolsheviks in the Civil War. Under pressure from the "green" - the abolition of surplus appropriation and the introduction of free trade.
Each of these periodizations in its own way can take place in Russian history, depending on which point of view you look at the Civil War. There are many differences, but there are also common points - this is that all historians lean towards the period of the beginning and end of the Civil War from 1918 to 1920, the peak of the highest opposition of forces in the country.
2. Like any historical phenomenon or event, the Civil War has its own characteristics and causes.
Signs:
1. The opposition of classes and social groups;
2. sharp class conflicts;
3. resolution of contradictions with the help of the armed forces;
4. terror against political opponents;
5. lack of clear temporal and spatial boundaries.
It is not easy to find an answer to the questions: who is to blame for the Civil War, and what are its causes?
In modern historical science, there are different opinions on this matter. Let us dwell on the most general interpretation of the causes of the Civil War.
1. Inconsistency between the goals of transforming society and methods of achieving them;
2. Nationalization of industry, liquidation of commodity-money relations;
3. Confiscation of landowners' lands;
4. Creation of a one-party political system, the establishment of the dictatorship of the Bolsheviks.
At the same time, a feature of the Civil War in Russia is the presence of foreign intervention - the violent intervention of one or several states in the internal affairs of another state, violation of its sovereignty. In Russia, there is a "superposition" of the Civil War and the intervention of the Entente countries and the countries of the Triple Alliance.
Reasons and goals of the intervention:
1. Struggle against Bolshevism;
2. Desire to return their property in Russia and restore repayment on loans - securities;
3. The Entente countries feared the pro-German orientation of the Bolsheviks and supported those who are capable of renewing the war with Germany;
4. Desired to divide Russia into spheres of influence.
The intervention of the Entente and Triple Alliance countries began in March 1918 with the invasion of the Anglo - Franco - American landing in Arkhangelsk and Murmansk. The Allies landed under the pretext of guarding their warehouses. The Japanese landed in the Far East in the month of April. In July - August 1918 the British landed in Central Asia and Transcaucasia. At the same time, Germany, violating the conditions of the Brest Peace, occupies the Crimea and Donbass, the Turks seize Armenia and part of Azerbaijan. At the end of November 1918, British and French interventionists landed in Novorossiysk, Sevastopol and Odessa, thereby blocking the Black Sea ports. In November 1918, the First World War ends, a revolution begins in Germany, respectively, neither she nor her allies had any time for the situation in Russia.
The Entente countries, on the contrary, could now have a greater influence on events in Russia.
There is a consolidation of the intervention and the "white movement".
· The local population had a negative attitude to the intervention;
· Among the interventionists, the Bolsheviks conduct anti-war propaganda;
· Increasing contradictions among the Entente countries;
· In the countries of the Entente, the movement "Hands off Soviet Russia!"
Thus, it can be concluded that the intervention, in which France played a leading role, did not have a decisive impact on the civil war in Russia. In March - April 1919, in connection with the unrest of the French sailors in the Black Sea, the Supreme Council of the Entente began to evacuate the expeditionary corps. The British are based in the north and north-west of the country until September 1919, and then leave the opposing forces to deal with each other.
II. Confrontation between class and political forces
There are three main socio-political camps in the civil war.
The White Movement is a collective name for political organizations and military formations opposing Soviet power during the Civil War. The origin of the color is associated with the traditional symbolism of white as the color of the supporters of the rule of law. Included were representatives of the former military-bureaucratic elite old Russia, landowners - bourgeois circles, represented by the Cadets and Octobrists. The head of the Cheka Latsis wrote: "The White Guard consists of student youth, officers, teachers and people of the free professions."
The main goals of the white movement were to introduce a constitutional order in Russia, to preserve the integrity and indivisibility of the Russian state.
The leaders of the White movement were - Mikhail Vasilyevich Alekseev, Aleksey Maksimovich Kaledin - ataman of the Donskoy army, Alexander Vasilyevich Kolchak established a military dictatorship in Siberia, the Urals and in the Orenburg region and took the title of "Supreme ruler of the All-Russian government", Anton Ivanovich Denikin, Peter Nikolaevich Wrangel, Nikolai Nikolaevich Yudenich - Commander-in-Chief of the Caucasian Front.
The Workers 'and Peasants' Red Army (RKKA) was created by a decree of the Council of People's Commissars of January 28, 1918. Formed from citizens of the Russian Republic at least 18 years old. During the Civil War, the Bolshevik military formations began to be called "red".
The commanders and military leaders of the Red Army - Vasily Konstantinovich Blucher, Semyon Mikhailovich Budyonny, Mikhail Vasilyevich Frunze, Mikhail Nikolaevich Tukhachevsky, Grigory Ivanovich Kotovsky, Vasily Ivanovich Chapaev.
The third force in the Civil War was the parties of the socialist and democratic orientation - the Socialist-Revolutionaries, Mensheviks. The political ideal for them was democratic Russia, the movement towards which they saw in the elections to the Constituent Assembly. In social terms, these parties expressed the interests of broad strata of the peasantry and democratically oriented intelligentsia.
From the beginning of 1918 to white movement Socialist-Revolutionaries and Mensheviks join. The white movement is becoming heterogeneous in social composition and political goals, they have only one thing in common - the struggle against Bolshevism. Until the fall of 1918, the main opponents of the Bolsheviks will be representatives of the socialist and democratic parties.
However, at the end of 1918, the Civil War reached its greatest scale: the maximum resources were used on both sides. White forces, with the support of foreign interventionists, dealt a combined blow to the positions of the Reds. General N.N. Yudenich attacked Petrograd from Estonia; General E.K. Miller from the north to Vologda; Admiral A.V. Kolchak strove to seize the Volga region; General A.I. Denikin moved from the south.
The Urals became the most dangerous sector of the front for the Soviet Republic.
Admiral Kolchak makes a coup in Omsk (November 1918 - December 1919) and takes the title of "Supreme Ruler of the All-Russian Government". The Eastern Front was formed.
Kolchak's program had several items:
· Struggle against Bolshevism;
· Creation of a united and indivisible Russia;
· Undecidedness of the future of Russia (the fate of Russia will be decided by the Constituent Assembly);
· Free enterprise, private property, denationalization of banks and industry;
· Recognition of Russia's external debt and the use of foreign aid in exchange for natural resources.
By violent mobilization, Kolchak created an army of 135 thousand people. Kolchak launched an offensive in the Middle Volga region and assumed to coordinate his actions with Denikin and Yudenich. Kolchak's army turned out to be of little combat capability, and in April 1919, the offensive of the Red Army began under the leadership of S.S. Kamenev and M.V. Frunze. Kolchak was thrown back beyond the Urals. In 1920, the Red Army reached Lake Baikal, Kolchak was arrested and executed by the Bolsheviks on February 7.
Kolchak's defeat was ensured not only by the leadership talents of the "red" generals, but also by the "second front" of the revolutionary forces in the Kolchak rear. The partisan movement gained enormous scope. The Kolchak government was not going to carry out the most important economic and social transformations, postponing them until the end of the struggle against the Bolsheviks. Kolchak widely applied exceptional laws, introducing the death penalty, which caused discontent among various segments of the population.
From the summer of 1919, the Southern Front became the main front.
Denikin's army takes possession of Ukraine, Kursk, Orel and Voronezh. The Cossack cavalry of General Mamontov and Shkuro, operating in the rear of the Red Army, reached Tula. In the Ukraine, in the rear of the White Army, there was a large peasant army led by N.I. Makhno. He stood for the fact that the rural workers were the owners of the land they cultivated and was uncompromising in the attempts to restore the landlord's ownership of the land.
At the end of October 1919, the offensive of the Red Army begins, and by the spring of 1920 the remnants of Denikin's volunteer army were evacuated to the Crimea, and Denikin left troops to Baron P.N. Wrangel and leaves for France.
In October 1919, Yudenich's offensive was stopped.
The end of the Civil War was marked by the capture of the Crimea, where the remnants of Denikin's troops united with Wrangel's troops were concentrated. By June 1920, Wrangel's combined army numbered 130 thousand people. Since July 1920, Wrangel has been landing troops, leading an offensive with the aim of breaking through to the Cossack regions.
In October, the Wrangelites retreat behind Perekop.
The southern front was eliminated. After the liberation of Crimea, 55 thousand officers were shot and drowned.
Officially, the Civil War ended in 1920, but on the outskirts, hostilities continued until 1921 in the Transcaucasus, until 1922 in the Far East, and the fight against gangs in Central Asia continued until 1941.
III. The policy of "War Communism", its essence and consequences
In the history of Russia, the policy of "war communism" is understood as a complex of extraordinary measures implemented from 1918 to 1920 - a period that had a tremendous impact on the further history of Russia.
There are subjective and objective prerequisites for the transition to war communism.
Subjective:
1. Hope for a world revolution, the policy was directed out of disbelief in the possibility of building socialism in one country.
Task: hold out until the world revolution. Associated with this emergency measures in the economy, the purpose of which is to concentrate the maximum of the material resources available in the country, to turn the Soviet republic into a fortress and hold out until the revolution in the west.
2. The methods of military-state capitalism used in the first world war were used by the Bolsheviks.
Objective:
1. The fall in industrial production;
2. Collapse of transport; finance (certain features of the communist society appeared associated with the collapse of the financial system - free: housing, utilities, natural ration);
4. The need to supply the army and the military industry;
5. Violation of trade: city - village.
War communism included the following elements:
· The surplus appropriation system, introduced in January 1919, was a development of the principle of the food dictatorship and extended not only to grain, but also to almost all types of agricultural products;
· Accelerated nationalization of large, medium, small industry and transport;
· Elimination of commodity-money relations and transition to direct commodity exchange, regulated by the state;
· Creation of equalizing distribution system;
· Introduction of universal labor service and labor mobilization as the main form of attraction to work.
The regime of war communism in peaceful conditions came into blatant contradiction with the interests of the peasantry, which was moving from economic forms of protest (reduction of areas) to armed forms of struggle. The armed resistance of the peasants of the Tambov province, which began in the summer of 1920 ("Antonovshchina"), became a catalyst for a mass peasant protest. Peasant formations operated in the Ukraine, the Urals, Siberia, the Volga region.
Also, a difficult situation has developed in the city. Economic devastation, shutdown of enterprises, undermined the basis of the established power. The workers responded to the closure of factories, a reduction in the grain ration, and the threat of hunger with demonstrations, and then strikes. Anti-Bolshevik demonstrations in the cities, the armed struggle of the peasantry influenced the mood in the army. On March 1, 1921, a rebellion of sailors began in Kronstadt. A deep social and political crisis broke out.
The result of War Communism was an unheard-of decline in production: at the beginning of 1921, industrial production amounted to 12% of the pre-war level, and the output of iron and cast iron - 2.5%. The volume of products for sale decreased by 92%, and the state treasury was replenished by 80% due to surplus appropriation. From 1919, entire areas came under the control of the insurgent peasants. In the spring and summer, a terrible famine broke out in the Volga region: there was no grain left after the confiscation. About 2 million Russians emigrated abroad, most of them city dwellers.
In Russian historiography, the policy pursued immediately after the revolution is assessed as forced. For example, here is what L.N. Trotsky in 1922: “The Soviet government found an involuntary grain trade, and a monopoly that relied on the old trading apparatus. The civil war destroyed this apparatus. The state had no choice but to hastily create a state apparatus for confiscating grain from the peasants and concentrating it in its own hands. ”L. Trotsky. Compositions. Volume 12. New economic policy of Soviet Russia and the prospects for the world revolution. War communism. Moscow - Leningrad, 1925.
War communism is characterized as a measure of a besieged fortress, not a socialist economy. The monstrous decline in industry is explained by the imbalance in its branches, introduced by the imperialist and then civil wars. In order to extract the most necessary products for the belligerent army and for the working class, a temporary centralized apparatus was created, which was recognized as cumbersome and unwieldy. “The policy of withdrawing the surplus from the peasants inevitably led to a reduction and lowering of agricultural production. The policy of equalizing wages inevitably led to a decrease in labor productivity. The policy of a centralized bureaucratic management of industry excluded the possibility of a truly centralized and full use of technical equipment and available labor ”ibid. ...
In Western historiography, an absolutely opposite opinion has developed: "War Communism" is an attempt by the Bolsheviks to realize their program ideals. The influence of the military situation on their policy was considered insignificant. As an example, we can cite the statement of R. Pipes: “Of course, in some part the policy of War Communism was forced to solve urgent problems. However, on the whole, it was by no means a “temporary measure”, but an arrogant and, as it turned out, a premature attempt to introduce a full-fledged communist system in the country ”R. Pipes. Russian Revolution. Ch. 2.M., 1994.
The opinion of foreign scientists should not be recklessly accepted as true. For a long time, Soviet society was almost completely closed and, in the absence of access to documents, many, often incorrect, stereotypes were formed in Western society. The objectivity of foreign authors can also be questioned - many works were imprinted by the situation of the Cold War. Finally, in no case should the military situation in the country be disregarded. Any force that has come to power can implement a policy relatively independent of the state of affairs in the state, only if it has a supply of financial and production resources and fully controls the situation in the country.
After the revolution, the Bolsheviks received a limited supply of money, industry in deep crisis, intervention and civil war. There was no question of any freedom of action.
A new look at the politics of 1918-1920 has taken shape in Russian literature over the past decade. It was first expressed by L.A. Kogan in his 1998 article War Communism: Utopia and Reality. It expressed an opinion about the influence of both the situation in the country and the party's attitudes on the policy of this period. Today this approach to the consideration of "War Communism" is gaining more and more popularity and is undoubtedly more objective. For example, here is what A.K. Sokolov, already in 1999: “Nevertheless, the military mobilization and requisition system during the civil war grew up on the interweaving of many facts. When there is no clear program of action, as was the case with the Bolsheviks ("first we will take power, and then we will see"), then concrete steps in a particular area are largely dictated by the prevailing situation, and then theoretical and ideological postulates tied to the Marxist doctrine are extracted from this. , it is often directly opposite to what was thought in the theory ”Sokolov A.K. course of Soviet history. 1917 - 1940: textbook for universities. - M., Higher School, 1999, although the author is more inclined to the "Soviet" assessment of events.
The question of the reasons and goals of pursuing the policy of "war communism" is the "cornerstone" in understanding the future policy of the party in the USSR for many decades. That is why it still causes numerous controversies.
IV. Civil War: New Approaches
Considering the Civil War from the point of view of new approaches, I would like to say that the origins of these events were laid back in the 19th century with the abolition of serfdom in Russia. Here you can consider a whole chain of events that inevitably led to a civil war, or might not.
With the abolition of serfdom, the peasants received a scanty allotment of land (from 2 to 5 dessiatines, depending on the black earth or not black earth), while they had to pay 20% of the cost of the piece of land to the landowner immediately, and 80% of those paid to the landowner by the state were to be returned within 49 years under 6% per annum. It was a very heavy burden, therefore, in the villages after the reform of 1861 appears new form land ownership - a peasant community, which made it possible for the peasantry to survive in such difficult conditions.
The knot of contradictions that had formed by the beginning of the 20th century: agrarian, labor, national, constitutional issues came into conflict with the policy of the autocracy, their solution depended only on whether they would be resolved "from above" - peacefully, or "from below" - with the help of revolution and as a consequence of the civil war.
The community begins to show itself as the organizer of all actions in the 1905 revolution, since the issue of land becomes the main issue of the revolution, but the policy of P.A. Stolypin of the Minister of Internal Affairs of Russia, namely his agrarian reform, temporarily solves the problems of the agrarian question. He manages to partially destroy the community, replacing it with individual land use (farms and cuts), and resettle the peasants to Siberia and the Far East. At the same time, L. Trotsky wrote, "If Stolypin's reform had succeeded, then the revolution of 1917 would have been impossible."
Stolypin developed a project of socio-political reforms until the 1930s, but they were not destined to be realized in connection with the tragic death of the minister on September 1, 1911
The problems were never resolved. Russia was like a "boiling cauldron", with a tightly closed lid and all the contents could splash out at any moment.
The result of the February Revolution was the overthrow of the autocracy, but the two forces that had formed: the Provisional Government and the Petrograd Soviet of Workers 'and Peasants' Deputies could not exist at the same time sitting on the "one chair".
Everything was decided by the October Revolution of 1917, where the Bolsheviks, having overthrown the provisional government, established their power - the power of the Soviets, and here you can return to the reasons and signs of the Civil War.
In a word, all the events described might not have happened if the solution to the agrarian question had been taken in a timely manner, and it is likely that we would now live in a completely different Russia, not knowing either about the October Revolution and the Civil War.
Conclusion
In conclusion, I would like to say that there is no reason to idealize either the Bolsheviks or their opponents. Both sides, fulfilling their duty, threw logs into the fire of the fratricidal war, and each side considered itself to be right. Whites claimed the role of representatives of the national cause, fought and died for Russia, great in their understanding. In turn, the Bolsheviks were convinced that they were the spokesmen for the interests of all working people, fighters against oppression and exploitation, for the speedy and final liberation of not only their own people, but the whole world.
The Bolsheviks won a victory, but the fruits were bitter. The socialist system collapsed without having time to "make" humanity happy.
The main lesson of the Civil War is that it does not solve problems, but generates violence and arbitrariness, leading to the mass death of compatriots.
This lesson must be remembered by all citizens when creating the rule of law and civil society.
Today, after almost nine decades, looking back, one wonders, what do we know about that distant Civil War? And no matter how disappointing it is, there are not so many. Long years many episodes were hushed up. Documents capable of bringing clarity were kept “behind seven locks” in special archives and special funds. However, the process of declassification that has begun makes it possible for historians, relying on genuine materials, to reveal little-known pages of history. I hope that in the near future we will know the whole truth about the events of the Civil War, and this work is only a small fraction of what we already know.
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Used Books
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3.S. Bazanov Art. "Army in the Russian revolution" supplement to the newspaper "First September". 2001 No. 9.
4. N.A. Balashova, L.V. Dmitrieva the use of tables and diagrams in the study of the history of the Civil War in Russia. Teaching history and social studies at school. 2001 No. 3.
5. A.A. Danilov History of the State and the Peoples of Russia. 20th century: a textbook for 9 grades. - M .: Bustard, 2002.
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7. Pipes R. Russian revolution. Part 2.M., 1994.
8. V. Topolyansky. “Leaders in the law. Essays on the Physiology of Russian Power ", M. 1996
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