Territorial growth of the Russian state in the 16th century. Russia in the 16th century Accession and development of new lands

In the 16th century, the Russian state was successively ruled by 3 monarchs belonging to the descendants of Alexander Nevsky: Vasily III, Ivan IV the Terrible and his son Tsar Fedor. This period is characterized by the steady expansion and strengthening of Russian lands. Under Vasily III Ivanovich, the unification of Russia was completely completed. Under him, the Great Horde fell, the tribute to which Ivan III stopped paying between 1472 and 1480.

In 1502, the Horde broke up, and the Russian state soon included such cities as Ryazan, Pskov and Chernigov. The country became monolithic, bordering on the south and east with the Tatar states. All of them, the Kazan and Crimean Khanates, the Nogai Horde were relatively weak and could not compete with the growing strength of Russia.

The Polish-Lithuanian state suffered a number of serious defeats in the wars with the Turks. And therefore, the forces of the Poles and Lithuanians did not pose a great danger to the Russian lands. Military clashes proceeded sluggishly, military success leaned one way or the other. And although all of Western Europe stood behind Poland, she herself weakened as a result of civil wars Reformation. Therefore, the Russian state in the 16th century existed in an extremely favorable political situation for it.

With the unification of the Russian lands into one whole, economic stability was achieved. In the villages, people lived quietly and were engaged in agriculture, paying dues to the owners of the land. Serving nobles received the largest quitrent. A large part of it went to the maintenance of horses and spearmen, which the nobles kept at their own expense. The quitrent was also received by boyars and monasteries. But rich land paid off any taxes. Ordinary peasants did not live in poverty, and the total population of Russia in the first half of the 16th century increased one and a half times and reached 9 million people.

AT countryside Harmonious people lived - calm, hardworking, quiet. Those who were bored in the villages left for the cities to enroll in public service and make a career. The entire Russian aristocracy settled in Moscow. It was near her that all the visitors began to gather, looking for a better life. As a result, entire clans of Shuisky, Belsky, Glinsky, Mstislavsky and other boyars were formed in the capital. As a result, the entire population of Moscow was divided into hostile parties.

But not all people, seeking to grab the tail of His Majesty's chance, went to Moscow and other big cities. There were those who did not want to become serfs among the boyars. This audience rushed to the borders of the state. In the 16th century it was extremely unsettled there. Although there was peace with the Tatars, the Nogais disturbed them with raids. For the Volga region, skirmishes with Mordovians and Burtases were characteristic. From time to time, Kazan Tatars also made raids.

Only on the northern borders everything was calm. There was a vast territory from the White Sea to the Ural Mountains. In these places, people got rich by extracting furs, which in their value were in no way inferior to gold. But on the western border all the time it was necessary to repel the onslaught of the Livonian Germans and Lithuanians.

Russian state in the XVI century on the map

It should be noted that the state border in the 16th century was fundamentally different from the borders between countries in our time. In the southern Russian steppe or in Siberia, it was simply impossible to determine the border strip. Therefore, we can talk not about borders as such, but about border territories. Let's say, between Kazan and Nizhny Novgorod, fences were arranged. Service people were kept on them to watch the steppe.

A young guy was sitting on a tree and looking to see if a Tatar cavalry detachment was galloping in the tall grass. Seeing the enemies, the guy lit a torch on a tree and thereby sent a signal to another watchman. After that, he descended from the tree, mounted his horse and, with all his might, galloped to the nearest garrison. The Tatars, noticing the fire, always tried to catch up with such a horseman.

There were usually two guards. One watched the steppe, and the other was near the saddled horses. In the garrisons, seeing the smoke from the fire, they sent messengers to other cities and to Moscow. The army approached quickly, but the light-horse Tatar detachment managed to catch prisoners in the surrounding villages. He began to retreat, and the Russians chased after him on fresh horses. If the Tatar horses were tired by that time, they overtook the enemies, cut them with sabers, and the prisoners were released and sent home.

Thus, people who served on the borders of the Russian state in the 16th century began to form special ethnic groups. For them, relations with the Russian aristocracy did not matter. The Cossacks arose on the Don. It accepted runaway peasants and felt independent. The sovereign of all Russia was the only authority for them. This was expressed in two formulations: "There is no extradition from the Don" and "We do not bow to anyone except the Sovereign."

In Moscow, the Cossacks were called robbers, and thieves, and murderers, and traitors. At the same time, the Russian people saw their Cossacks. Caravans with vodka, grain, gunpowder, lead regularly went to the Don. The Moscow government constantly asked the atamans-well done to restore at least some order on the Russian borders.

From all that has been said, it is clear that the Russian state in the 16th century was not like Russia of previous centuries. In it, completely different stereotypes of behavior were born. Residents of Moscow began to bear little resemblance to residents of the border regions. As for the peasantry, it lived extremely well during this period of time. And the aristocrats broke up into clans that enjoyed the support of different groups of urban people. All this played a certain historical role in the further development of the state.

Alexander Semashko

Social and political structure Russian state XVI century.

Formed at the end of the XV - beginning of the XVI century. The Russian state developed as part of the global civilization. However, one should take into account the uniqueness of the conditions in which this development took place. The territory of Russia lay in a zone of sharply continental climate with a short agricultural summer. The fertile chernozems of the Wild Field (south of the Oka River) of the Volga region, southern Siberia have just begun to be developed.

The country had no access to warm seas. In the absence of natural borders, the constant struggle against external aggression required the strain of all the resources of the country.

Territory and population.

At the beginning of the 16th century, our state was called differently in official documents: Russia, Russia, the Russian state, the Muscovite kingdom, and at the end of the 16th century - Russia. At this time, the territory of the country increased. It included the lands of Kazan, Astrakhan Khanate, Bashkiria. There was a development of fertile lands on the southern outskirts of the country - the Wild Field. Attempts were made to reach the Baltic Sea. The territory of the Siberian Khanate was annexed. After the annexation of Kazan, the Siberian Khanate became Russia's neighbor in the East, which was of great interest to Russian feudal lords (new territories, obtaining expensive furs). The conquest of Siberia began in 1581, when the Stroganov merchants organized a campaign of Cossacks against the Siberian Khan Kuchun, who made constant raids on their possessions. This campaign was led by Ermak (Yermalai Timofeevich). In the spring of 1582, Yermak moved deep into Siberia, passed along the Irtysh and Tobol rivers and captured the Chuvash Mountain, which guarded the approaches to the capital of the Khanate. Kuchum fled, and the Cossacks occupied his capital Kashlyk (Siberia) without a fight.

However, Kuchum continued to attack the Cossacks, inflicting sensitive blows on them. Yermak found himself in a difficult position, since his detachment was hundreds of miles away from his base. Help from the Moscow government came only two years later. Kuchum managed to lure Yermak's detachment into an ambush. Trying to swim to his boats, Yermak drowned. The remnants of his detachment, suffering from lack of food and scurvy, left Kashlyk and returned to Russia. Yermak's campaign marked the beginning of a systematic Russian offensive in the Trans-Urals. In 1568, the Tyumen fortress was built, in 1587 - Tobolsk, which became the Russian center in Siberia. In 1598, Kuchum was finally defeated and soon died. The peoples of Siberia became part of Russia, Russian settlers began to explore the region, peasants, Cossacks, townspeople and merchants rushed there.

By the end of the reign of Ivan IV, it increased tenfold compared to what his grandfather Ivan III inherited in the middle of the 15th century. In its composition

rich, fertile lands entered, but they still needed to be developed. With the entry of the lands of the Volga region, the Urals, Western Siberia, the multinational composition of the country's population increased even more.

The population of the country by the end of the XVI century, there were nine million people. Its main part was concentrated in the northwest (Novgorod) and in the center of the country (Moscow). However, its density, even in the most populated lands, according to historians, was only one - five people per 1 sq. km.

Agriculture.

It is necessary to pay special attention to the development of agriculture in the 16th century, since the vast majority of the population were peasants who lived in villages and villages (from 5 to 50 households).

The country's economy was traditional in nature, based on the dominance of subsistence farming. The boyar patrimony remained the dominant form of land ownership. The largest were the possessions of the Grand Duke, the Metropolitan and monasteries. Former local princes became vassals of the Sovereign of All Russia. Their possessions turned into ordinary estates (“beautifying princes”).

Expanded, especially since the second half of the XVI century, landownership. The state, in the conditions of a lack of funds to create a mercenary army, wishing to put under the control of the boyars - patrimonials and specific princes, took the path of creating a state estate system. The distribution of land led to the fact that in the second half of the 16th century the black-sown peasantry in the center of the country and in the northwest (peasants who lived in communities, paid taxes and carried duties in favor of the state) was significantly reduced. A significant number of black-eared peasants remained only on the outskirts (the north of the country, Karelia, the Volga region and Siberia). In a special position was the population living on the developed lands of the Wild Field (on the rivers Dnieper, Don, on the Middle and Lower Volga, Yaik). In the second half of the 16th century, the Cossacks began to play a significant role in the southern outskirts of Russia. The peasants fled to the free lands of the Wild Field. There they united in a kind of paramilitary communities; all the most important matters were decided on the Cossack circle. Property stratification penetrated early among the Cossacks, which caused a struggle between the poorest Cossacks - the naked and the elders - the Cossack elites. From the 16th century, the government used the Cossacks to carry out border service, supplied them with gunpowder, provisions, and paid them a salary. Such Cossacks, in contrast to the "free" Cossacks, received the name "serving".

The level of development of agriculture in different areas was not the same. The central regions were an area of ​​developed plow agriculture with a three-field system. The development of the Wild Field, rich in black soil, began. The shifting system has been preserved here, and in the north - the undercut. The main tool of labor was a wooden plow with an iron tip.

They grew rye, oats, barley; rarely sowed peas, wheat, buckwheat, millet. Flax was cultivated in the Novgorod-Pskov and Smolensk lands. The manure of the soil was quite widespread, which significantly increased the yield. Hunting, fishing and salt-making were widespread in the north and northeast of the country; in the Volga region, along with agriculture, cattle breeding occupied a significant place.

Monasteries played a significant role in the development of agriculture. Here, as a rule, the soil was better cultivated for crops. Since the monasteries had benefits, peasants willingly settled on their lands.

Cities and trade.

By the end of the 16th century, there were approximately 220 cities in Russia. The largest city was Moscow, whose population was about 100 thousand people. Up to 30,000 lived in Novgorod and Pskov, 8,000 in Mozhaisk, and about 3,000 in Serpukhov and Kolomna.

In the 16th century, the development of handicraft production in Russian cities continued. The specialization of production, closely related to the availability of local raw materials, then still had an exclusively natural - geographical character. Tula-Serpukhov, Ustyuzhno-Zhelezopolsky, Novgorod-Tikhvinsky regions specialized in the production of metal, Novgorod-Pskov land and Smolensk region were the largest centers for the production of linen and canvas. Leather production was developed in Yaroslavl and Kazan. The Vologda Territory produced a huge amount of salt, etc. Throughout the country, large-scale stone construction was carried out at that time. The first large state-owned enterprises appeared in Moscow - the Armory, the Cannon Yard, the Cloth Yard. There is a further deepening of the division of labor. In Novgorod, one could count 22 specialties among metalworkers: locksmiths, tanners, saber makers, nail makers, etc.; 25 specialties - among tanners; 222 silversmiths worked. Craftsmen worked mainly to order, but they also produced something for trade. The exchange of products in Russia was carried out on the basis of the geographical division of labor. Signs of the formation of the all-Russian market have been identified. In the 16th century, trade developed significantly. The northern lands brought bread, and from there furs and fish. In domestic trade leading role the feudal lords played, and among them the Grand Duke himself, monasteries, large merchants. Gradually, industrial products and handicraft products entered the sphere of trade circulation. the largest shopping malls were Novgorod, Kholmogory, Nizhny Novgorod, Moscow.

A significant part of the territory of the cities was occupied by courtyards, gardens, vegetable gardens, meadows of boyars, churches and monasteries. In their hands were concentrated monetary wealth, which was given at interest, went to the purchase and accumulation of treasures, and was not invested in production.

Development of foreign trade. FROM Western Europe trade relations were carried out through Novgorod and Smolensk. These links are established in

a consequence of the expedition of the British H. Willoughby and R. Chancellor, who were looking for a way to India through the Arctic Ocean and ended up at the mouth of the Northern Dvina. Through it, in the middle of the 16th century, a maritime connection with England was established. Beneficial agreements were concluded with the British, and the English Trading Company was founded. In 1584, the city of Arkhangelsk arose. However, the climatic conditions of this region limited navigation along the White Sea and the Northern Dvina to 3-4 months. The Great Volga trade route, after the annexation of the Volga khanates, connected Russia with the countries of the East, from where they brought silk, fabrics, porcelain, paints, etc. Weapons, cloth, jewelry, wine were imported from Western Europe, and furs, flax, honey, and wax were exported.

As trade developed, a wealthy stratum of merchants formed from various strata of society. In Moscow, privileged merchant associations, a living room and cloth hundreds are being created. They received judicial and tax benefits from the government.

Analysis of the social - economic development in Russia in the 16th century shows that the traditional feudal economy was strengthening in the country at that time. The growth of small-scale production in the cities and trade did not lead to the creation of centers of bourgeois development.

Political system.

Before Ivan the Terrible in Russia, there were two nationwide departments: the Palace (management of the personal affairs of the sovereign) and the Treasury (money, jewelry, state seal, archive). The country was divided into districts headed by the governor. The counties were divided into parishes.

At the end of the XV - the beginning of the XVI centuries the formation of the Russian state was completed. This happened at a turning point in world history. In 1453 Constantinople fell, in 1492 America was discovered. It was the time of the Great Geographical Discoveries, the beginning of the capitalist era in the advanced countries of Europe, where the process of primitive accumulation of capital was going on, a manufacturing industry arose, and the main classes of bourgeois society were taking shape. There were noticeable changes in the ideological life of society associated with the approval of the ideas of the Renaissance and the ideas of humanism. In the end XVI in. the first victorious bourgeois revolution in Europe began (the Netherlands, 1566-1609).

Formed at the end XV - early XVI centuries The Russian state developed as part of the world civilization. However, one should take into account the uniqueness of the conditions in which this development took place. The territory of Russia lay in a zone of sharply continental climate with a short agricultural summer. The fertile chernozems of the Wild Field, the Volga region, and Siberia have just begun to be developed. There was a difficult process of development of new territories. The country had no access to warm seas. In the absence of natural borders, the constant struggle against external aggression required the straining of all resources. The lands of the west and south of the former Old Russian state were in the hands of the opponents of Russia. Weakened and severed traditional trade and cultural ties.

The Russian state managed to achieve political unity by including in its composition principalities and lands of different levels of development, which, even under the dominance of subsistence farming and the absence of intensive economic ties, retained "living traces of the former autonomy." There were no real elements of bourgeois development in the country. This level of the economy predetermined the inevitability of internal conflicts in the process of the country's centralization.

I. Socio-economic development

Territory and population

By the end of the XVI in. the territory of Russia has expanded almost twice compared to the middle of the century. It included the lands of the Kazan, Astrakhan and Siberian Khanates, Bashkiria. There was also the development of land on the southern outskirts of the country, the so-called Wild Field, rich in fertile lands. Attempts were made to reach the Baltic coast.

The population of Russia at the end XVI in. numbered 9 million people. The bulk of the population was concentrated in the northwest and central part of the country. However, its density, even in the most populated lands of Russia, according to historians, was 1-5 people per 1 sq. km. km. In Europe, at the same time, the population density reached 10-30 inhabitants per I sq. km.

The territory of the country at the end of Ivan's reign IV increased more than ten times compared to what his grandfather Ivan inherited III in the middle of XV centuries. It included rich and fertile lands, but they still needed to be developed. With the entry of the lands of the Volga region, the Urals, Western Siberia, the multinational composition of the country's population expanded even more.

Agriculture

Russia in the XVI in. took a step forward in socio-economic development, which proceeded unevenly in different lands. The country's economy was of a traditional nature, based on the dominance of subsistence farming and feudal orders.

The boyar estate remained the dominant form of feudal agriculture. The largest were the estates of the Grand Duke, Metropolitan and monasteries. Former local princes became vassals of the Sovereign of All Russia. Their possessions turned into ordinary estates ("beautifying princes").

Expanded, especially in the second half XVI c., local landownership. The state, in the conditions of a lack of funds to create a mercenary army, wishing to subjugate the boyars-patrimonials and specific princes, took the path of creating a state estate system. For example, in the Tula region, 80% of the properties at the end XVI in. were estates.

The distribution of land led to the fact that in the second half XVI in. the black-sown peasantry (peasants who lived in communities and paid taxes to the state) was significantly reduced in the center of the country and in the north-west. A significant number of black-eared peasants remained only in the North of the country, in Karelia, as well as in the Volga region and Siberia.

In a special position were the peasants who lived on the developed lands of the Wild Field (on the rivers Dnieper, Don, Middle and Lower Volga, Yaik). The peasants here received land allotments for their service in the protection of Russian borders.

By the second half XVI in. on the southern outskirts of Russia began to take shape Cossacks(from the Turkic word "dared", "free man"). The growth of feudal exploitation led to a mass exodus of peasants to the free lands of the Wild Field. There they united in a kind of paramilitary communities; all the most important matters were decided on the Cossack circle. Property stratification penetrated early among the Cossacks, which caused a struggle between the poorest Cossacks, the naked and the elders - the Cossack elite. FROM XVI in. the government used the Cossacks to carry out border service. It supplied the Cossacks with gunpowder, provisions, paid them a salary.

A unified state contributed to the development of productive forces. Three-field cultivation has become widespread, although slash-and-burn agriculture has not yet lost its significance. Quite in kind remained the main form of rent. Corvee has not yet received wide distribution. The feudal lords' own plowing was cultivated by suffering (from "strada" - agricultural work) and bonded (debtors who worked off the interest of the debt or voluntarily signed the "service bondage") serfs.

Cities and trade

By the end of the XVI in. There were about 220 cities in Russia. The largest city was Moscow, whose population was about 100 thousand people (in Paris and Naples at the end XVI in. there were 200 thousand people, in London, Venice, Amsterdam, Rome - 100 thousand). The rest of the cities of Russia, as a rule, had 3-8 thousand people each. In Europe, a medium-sized city XVI in. numbered 20-30 thousand inhabitants.

The most important and developed Russian cities XVI in. were Novgorod, Vologda, Veliky Ustyug, Kazan, Yaroslavl, Salt Kamskaya, Kaluga, Nizhny Novgorod, Tula, Astrakhan. During the development of the Wild Field, Orel, Belgorod and Voronezh were founded; in connection with the annexation of the Kazan and Astrakhan khanates - Samara and Tsaritsyn. With the penetration of Russians into Siberia, Tyumen and Tobolsk were built.

Finally, in connection with the needs of foreign trade, Arkhangelsk arose.

In the XVI in. there was an increase in handicraft production and commodity-money relations in Russian cities. The specialization of production, closely related to the availability of local raw materials, was then still exclusively natural-geographical in nature. Tula-Serpukhov, Ustyuzhno-Zhelezopolsky, Novgorod-Tikhvinsky regions specialized in metal production; The Novgorod-Pskov land and the Smolensk region were the largest centers for the production of linen and canvas; leather production was developed in Yaroslavl and Kazan; The Vologda Territory produced a huge amount of salt, etc. Extensive stone construction was carried out throughout the country. The first large state-owned enterprises appeared in Moscow - the Armory, the Cannon Yard, the Cloth Yard.

Speaking about the scope of handicraft production, it should be noted that the quantitative growth of small-scale commodity production has not yet led to its development into capitalist commodity production, as was the case in a number of advanced countries in the West. A significant part of the territory of the city was occupied by courtyards, gardens, vegetable gardens, meadows of boyars, churches and monasteries; money wealth was concentrated in their hands, which were given at interest, went to the purchase and accumulation of treasures, and were not invested in production.

A significant role in trade, along with merchants, was played by secular and spiritual feudal lords, especially monasteries. Bread was brought from the center and southern regions to the north, and leather was brought from the Volga region; Pomorye and Siberia supplied furs, fish, salt, Tula and Serpukhov - metal, etc.

As a result of the expedition of the British Willoughby and Chancellor, in the middle XVI in. who were looking for a way to India across the Arctic Ocean and found themselves at the mouth of the Northern Dvina, sea connections were established with England. A preferential agreement was concluded with the British, and an English trading company was founded. In 1584, the city of Arkhangelsk arose, but the climatic conditions of this region limited navigation along the White Sea and the Northern Dvina to three to four months a year. The Great Volga Route, after the annexation of the Volga khanates (the remnants of the Golden Horde), connected Russia with the countries of the East, from where they brought silk, fabrics, porcelain, paints, spices, etc. From Western Europe, through Arkhangelsk, Novgorod, Smolensk, Russia imported weapons, cloth, jewelry, wine in exchange for furs, flax, hemp, honey, and wax.

Analysis of the socio-economic development of Russia in XVI in. shows that in the country at that time there was a process of strengthening the feudal mode of production. The growth of small-scale production in the cities and trade did not lead to the creation of centers of bourgeois development.

2. Domestic policy

Years of boyar rule

After the death in 1533 of Basil III his three-year-old son Ivan ascended the throne IV . In fact, his mother, Elena, the daughter of Prince Glinsky, a native of Lithuania, ruled the state. Both during the reign of Elena, and after her death (1538; there is an assumption that she was poisoned), the struggle for power between the boyar groups of the Velsky, Shuisky, Glinsky did not stop.

Boyar rule led to a weakening of the central government, and the arbitrariness of the votchinniki had a serious impact on the position of the masses, causing discontent and open speeches in a number of Russian cities.

In June 1547, a severe fire broke out in Moscow. The flames raged for two days. The city was almost completely burned out. About 4 thousand Muscovites died in the fire. Ivan IV and his entourage, fleeing from smoke and fire, hid in the village of Vorobiev. The cause of the fire was sought in the actions of real people. Rumors spread that the fire was the work of the Glinskys, with whose name the people associated the difficult years of boyar rule.

In the Kremlin, on the square near the Assumption Cathedral, a veche gathered. One of the Glinskys was torn to pieces by the insurgent people. The yards of their supporters and relatives were burned and looted. “And there was fear in my soul and trembling in my bones,” Ivan later recalled. IV . With great difficulty, the government managed to suppress the uprising.

Actions against the feudal lords took place in the cities of Opochka, and somewhat later in Pskov and Ustyug. Class contradictions were reflected in the spread of heresies. For example, the serf of Theodosius Kosoy, the most radical heretic of that time, advocated the equality of all people and disobedience to the authorities. His teachings became widespread, especially among the townspeople.

Popular performances showed that the country needs reforms. The further development of the country required the strengthening of statehood, the centralization of power. Ivan IV embarked on a path of structural reforms.

Elected Rada

The nobility expressed particular interest in carrying out reforms. A talented publicist of that time, nobleman Ivan Semenovich Peresvetov, was his peculiar ideologist. He turned to the king with messages in which the program of transformations was outlined. These proposals of Peresvetov largely anticipated the actions of Ivan IV . Some historians even believed that Ivan himself was the author of the petitions. IV . It has now been established that I.S. Peresvetov is a real historical figure.

Proceeding from the interests of the nobility, I.S. Peresvetov sharply condemned the boyar arbitrariness. He saw the ideal state system in a strong royal power, based on the nobility. "A state without a thunderstorm is like a horse without a bridle," I.S. Peresvetov believed.

Around 1549, from those close to the young Ivan IV people formed a new government. It was called the Chosen Rada - so A. Kurbsky called it in the Polish manner in one of his writings. The composition of the Chosen Rada is not entirely clear. It was headed by A.F.Adashev, who came from a rich but not very noble family. Representatives of various strata of the ruling class took part in the work of the Elected Rada. Princes D. Kurlyatev, M. Vorotynsky, Metropolitan Macarius of Moscow and priest of the Annunciation Cathedral of the Kremlin (the home church of the Moscow tsars) Sylvester, clerk of the Ambassadorial Department I. Viskovaty. The composition of the Elected Rada, as it were, reflected a compromise between the various strata of the ruling class. The elected Rada existed until 1560 and was the body that carried out the transformations, called the reforms of the middle 16th century

Wedding to the kingdom . Central and local government.

In January 1547 Ivan IV having reached the age of majority, officially married to the kingdom. The ceremony of taking the royal title took place in the Assumption Cathedral of the Kremlin. From the hands of the Moscow Metropolitan Macarius, who developed the ritual of crowning the king, Ivan IV accepted the cap of Monomakh and other regalia of royal power. The Church, as it were, affirmed the divine origin of royal power, but at the same time strengthened its own authority. From now on, the Grand Duke of Moscow began to be called the Tsar.

During the period when a centralized state was taking shape, as well as during interregnums and internal strife, the role of a legislative and deliberative body under the Grand Duke, and later under the king, played Boyar Duma. During the reign of Ivan IV the composition of the Boyar Duma was expanded almost threefold in order to weaken the role of the boyar aristocracy in it.

The rise of the authority of the tsarist government, the strengthening of the clergy and the formation of a powerful landownership led to the emergence of a new body of the ruling class - Zemsky Cathedral. Zemsky Sobors met irregularly and dealt with the most important state affairs, primarily issues foreign policy and finance. During the period of kingdoms, new tsars were elected at Zemsky Sobors. The first Zemsky Sobor was convened in 1549. He decided to draw up a new Code of Laws (approved in 1550) and formulated a reform program for the middle XVI in. (according to experts, more than 50 Zemsky Sobors took place; the last Zemsky Sobors in Russia were held in the 80s XVI in.). The Zemsky Sobors included the Boyar Duma, the Consecrated Cathedral - representatives of the higher clergy; many meetings of the Zemsky Sobors were also attended by representatives of the nobility and the top tenants.

Even before the reforms of the middle XVI in. individual industries government controlled individual territories began to be entrusted ("ordered", as they were then called) to the boyars. This is how the first appeared orders- institutions in charge of the branches of government or individual regions of the country. In the middle XVI in. there were already two dozen orders. Military affairs were led by the Discharge Order (in charge of the local army), Pushkarsky (artillery), Streltsy (archers), Armory (arsenal). The Embassy Department was in charge of foreign affairs, the Great Parish Order was in charge of state finances; state lands distributed to the nobles - Local order; serfs - serf order. There were orders that were in charge of certain territories: the order of the Siberian Palace ruled Siberia; order of the Kazan Palace - by the annexed Kazan Khanate.

At the head of the order was a boyar or clerk - a major government official. Orders were in charge of administration, tax collection and court. With the increasing complexity of the tasks of public administration, the number of orders grew. By the time of Peter's transformations at the beginning XVIII in. there were about 50 of them. The design of the order system made it possible to centralize the administration of the country.

A unified management system began to be created on the ground. The collection of local taxes was previously entrusted to the boyars-feeders. They were in fact the rulers of individual lands. All funds collected in excess of the necessary taxes to the treasury, i.e., were at their personal disposal. they "feed" by managing the lands. In 1556 feedings were cancelled. On the ground, management (investigation and court for especially important state cases) was transferred into the hands of labial elders(lip - district), elected from local nobles, zemstvo elders- from among the wealthy strata among the black-haired population where there was no noble land ownership, and city ​​clerks or favorite heads- in cities. So in the middle XVI in. the apparatus of state power was formed in the form estate-representative monarchy.

Sudebnik 1550

The general trend towards the centralization of the country and the state apparatus led to the publication of a new collection of laws - the Sudebnik of 1550. Taking Ivan's Sudebnik as a basis III , the compilers of the new Sudebnik made changes to it related to the strengthening of the central government. It confirmed the right of the peasants to move on St. George's Day and the payment for the "elderly" was increased. The feudal lord was now responsible for the crimes of his peasants, which increased their personal dependence on the master. For the first time, punishment for bribery was introduced.

Even under Elena Glinskaya, a monetary reform was launched. The Moscow ruble has become the main payment unit in the country. The right to collect trade duties passed into the hands of the state. The population of the country was obliged to bear tax- a complex of natural and monetary duties. In the middle XVI in. a single unit of taxation was established for the entire state - a large plow. Depending on the fertility of the soil, as well as the social status of the owner of the land, the plow was 400-600 hectares of land. The tax reform further worsened the position of the masses.

Military reform

Much has been done to strengthen the armed forces of the country. The core of the army was noble militia. Near Moscow, a "chosen thousand" was planted - 1070 provincial nobles, who, in the opinion of the tsar, were to become the mainstay of power.

The "Code of Service" was drawn up. An votchinnik or landowner could start service from the age of 15 and pass it on by inheritance. From 150 acres of land, both the boyar and the nobleman had to put up one warrior and appear at the reviews "horse, crowded and armed."

A big step forward in the organization of the military forces of Russia was the creation in 1550 of a permanent archery troops. At first, there were three thousand archers. In addition, foreigners began to be recruited into the army, the number of which was insignificant. Artillery was reinforced. The Cossacks were involved in carrying out the border service.

The boyars and nobles who made up the militia were called "service people in the fatherland", i.e. by origin. The other group was made up of "service people according to the device" (i.e., according to recruitment). In addition to the archers, there were gunners (artillerymen), city guards, and Cossacks were close to them. Rear work (convoy, construction of fortifications) was carried out by the "staff" - a militia from among the black-eared, monastic peasants and townspeople.

At the time of military campaigns, localism was limited - the procedure for filling positions depending on the nobility and service career of the ancestors. In the middle XVI in. An official reference book was compiled - "The Sovereign Genealogy", which streamlined local disputes.

Stoglavy Cathedral

In 1551, on the initiative of the tsar and the metropolitan, the Council of the Russian Church met, which received the name Stoglavy, since its decisions were formulated in one hundred chapters. The decisions of the clergy reflected the changes associated with the centralization of the state. The cathedral approved the adoption of the Sudebnik of 1550 and the reforms of Ivan IV . From among the local saints revered in individual Russian lands, an all-Russian list was compiled. Ordered and unified rituals throughout the country. Even art was subject to regulation. It was decided to leave in the hands of the church all the lands acquired by it earlier. In the future, churchmen could buy land and receive it as a gift only with the royal permission. Thus, in the issue of monastic landownership, the line on its restriction and control by the king won.

Reforms of the 50s XVI in. contributed to the strengthening of the Russian centralized multinational state. They strengthened the power of the tsar, led to the reorganization of local and central government, strengthened the power of the country, but were accompanied by new pressure on the Russian peasantry, led to its further enslavement. Reforms of the middle XVI in. at the same time, they created the prerequisites for solving the foreign policy tasks facing Russia.

3. Foreign policy.

Accession and development of new lands

The main tasks in the field of Russian foreign policy in XVI in. were: in the west - the need to have access to the Baltic Sea, in the southeast and east - the fight against the Kazan and Astrakhan khanates and the beginning of the development of Siberia, in the south - the protection of the country from the raids of the Crimean Khan.

Formed as a result of the collapse of the Golden Horde, the Kazan and Astrakhan khanates constantly threatened the Russian lands. They held the Volga trade route in their hands. Finally, these were areas of fertile land (Ivan Peresvetov called them "podraisky"), which the Russian nobility had long dreamed of. The peoples of the Volga region - Mari, Mordovians, Chuvashs - aspired to liberation. The solution to the problem of the subordination of the Kazan and Astrakhan khanates was possible in two ways: either to plant your proteges in these states, or to conquer them.

After a series of unsuccessful diplomatic attempts to subdue the Kazan Khanate in 1552, the 150,000-strong army of Ivan IV besieged Kazan, which at that time represented a first-class military fortress. To facilitate the task of taking Kazan, a wooden fortress was built in the upper reaches of the Volga (near Uglich), which was disassembled and floated down the Volga to the confluence of the Sviyaga River. The city of Sviyazhsk was built here, which became the stronghold of the struggle for Kazan. The construction of this fortress was headed by a talented master Ivan Vyrodkov. He also supervised the construction of mine tunnels and siege devices.

Kazanwas taken by storm October 2, 1552 As a result of the explosion of 48 barrels of gunpowder laid in the mines, part of the wall of the Kazan Kremlin was destroyed. Through gaps in the wall, Russian troops broke into the city. Khan Yadigir-Magmet was taken prisoner. Subsequently, he was baptized, received the name Simeon Kasaevich, became the owner of Zvenigorod and an active ally of the king.

Four years after the capture of Kazan in 1556 G. was attached Astrakhan. Chuvashia and most of Bashkiria voluntarily became part of Russia. Dependence on Russia was recognized by the Nogai Horde. Thus, the new fertile lands and the entire Volga trade route became part of Russia. The Russian lands were spared from the invasions of the Khan's troops. Expanded Russia's ties with the peoples North Caucasus and Central Asia.

The annexation of Kazan and Astrakhan opened up the possibility of advancing to Siberia. Wealthy merchants - industrialists Stroganovs received letters from Ivan the Terrible to own land along the Tobol River. At their own expense, they formed a detachment of 840 (according to other sources 600) people from free Cossacks, led by Ermak Timofeevich. In 1581, Yermak with his army penetrated the territory of the Siberian Khanate, and a year later defeated the troops of Khan Kuchum and took his capital Kashlyk (Isker).

The accession of the Volga region and Siberia was generally positive for the peoples of this region: they became part of the state, which was at a higher level of economic and cultural development. The local ruling class eventually became part of the Russian one.

In connection with the start of development in XVI in. On the territory of the Wild Field (fertile lands south of Tula), the Russian government was faced with the task of strengthening the southern borders from the raids of the Crimean Khan. For this purpose, Tulskaya was built (from the middle XVI c.) and Belgorod (in the 30s - 40s. XVII c.) notch features - defensive lines, consisting of blockages of the forest - notches, in the intervals between which they put wooden fortresses - stockades, which closed the passages in the notches for the Tatar cavalry.

Livonian War (1558-1583)

Trying to reach the Baltic coast, Ivan IV for 25 years he waged a debilitating Livonian war. The war with Livonia was caused by the need to establish close ties with Western Europe, which could be most easily achieved through the seas, as well as the need to defend the western borders of Russia. The Russian nobles were interested in this war: it opened up the possibility of acquiring new economically developed lands. The war, therefore, was conditioned by the objective needs of Russia's development at that time.

The reason for the war was the delay by the Livonian Order of 123 Western specialists invited to the Russian service, as well as the non-payment of tribute by Livonia for the city of Yuryev with the territory adjacent to it over the past 50 years. The Livonian ambassadors, who came to Moscow for negotiations, could not give a satisfactory explanation of the reasons for the non-payment of tribute on time. When the ambassadors were invited to the feast, they saw empty dishes in front of them. This was an unheard-of insult and actually meant war. In 1558 Ivan IV moved troops to Livonia.

The beginning of the war is characterized by the victories of the Russian troops, who took Narva and Yuriev. A total of 20 cities were taken. Russian troops fought successful battles, advanced to Riga and Reval (Tallinn). In 1560, the troops of the Order were defeated, and its master was captured. This led to the collapse of the Livonian Order (1561), whose lands came under the rule of Poland, Denmark and Sweden. The new Master of the Order, G.Ketler, received Courland as a possession and recognized dependence on the Polish king. The last major success of the Russians at the first stage of the war was the capture of Polotsk in 1563.

The war took on a protracted character. Several European powers were drawn into it. Contradictions within Russia intensified. Among those Russian boyars who were interested in strengthening the southern Russian borders, resistance to the continuation of the Livonian War grew. The figures surrounding the tsar also showed hesitation - A. Adashev and Sylvester. This led to the termination in 1560 of the activities of the Chosen Rada. Ivan IV took a course on strengthening personal power. In 1564, Prince Andrei Kurbsky, who had previously commanded the Russian troops, went over to the side of the Poles. This was not dissatisfaction with the actions of the king, but an act of treason. In these difficult circumstances for the country, Ivan IV went to the introduction of the oprichnina (1565-1572).

In 1569, Poland and Lithuania united into one state - the Commonwealth. The troops of the Commonwealth, as well as Sweden, who captured Narva, conducted successful military operations against Russia. Only the defense of the city of Pskov in 1581, when its inhabitants repulsed 30 assaults and made about 50 sorties against the troops of the Polish king Stefan Batory, allowed Russia to conclude a truce in the Yama Zapolsky - a place near Pskov in 1582. A year later, the Plyussky truce was concluded with Sweden . The Livonian war ended in defeat.

The failure of the Livonian War was ultimately the result of the economic backwardness of Russia, which could not successfully endure a long struggle against strong opponents. The ruin of the country during the years of the oprichnina only exacerbated the matter.

4. Oprichnina

Ivan IV , fighting against the rebellions and betrayals of the feudal nobility, he saw in them the main reason for the failures of his policy. He firmly stood on the position of the need for a strong autocratic power, the main obstacles to the establishment of which were the boyar-princely opposition and boyar privileges. The question was how the struggle would be fought. The acuteness of the moment and the general underdevelopment of the forms of the state apparatus, as well as the character traits of the tsar, who, apparently, was an extremely unbalanced person, led to the establishment of the oprichnina. Ivan IV dealt with the remnants of feudal fragmentation by purely feudal methods.

In January 1565, through the village of Kolomenskoye and the Trinity-Sergius Monastery, the tsar left for Aleksandrovskaya Sloboda (now the city of Aleksandrov). From there he turned to the capital with two messages. In the first message sent to the clergy and the Boyar Duma, Ivan IV reported on the renunciation of power due to the betrayal of the boyars and asked for a special inheritance for him. (The term "oprichnina" comes from the word "oprich" - except. So called Ivan IV territory, which he asked to allocate to himself as a special inheritance). In the second message addressed to the townspeople, the king reported on decision and added that he had no complaints against the townspeople.

It was a well-calculated political maneuver. Using the faith of the people in the tsar, Ivan the Terrible expected to be called back to the throne. When this happened, the tsar dictated his conditions: the right of unlimited autocratic power and the establishment of an oprichnina. The country was divided into two parts: the oprichnina and the zemshchina. In the oprichnina Ivan IV included the most important lands. It included Pomeranian cities, cities with large settlements and strategically important, as well as the most economically developed regions of the country. Nobles who were part of the oprichnina army settled on these lands. Its composition was initially determined at a thousand people. This army was to be supported by the population of the zemstvo. The guardsmen settled on the lands of the boyars, who were evicted to the territory of the zemshchina. In the oprichnina, in parallel with the zemshchina, a system of government bodies was formed. The guardsmen wore black clothes. Dog heads and brooms were attached to their saddles, symbolizing the canine devotion of the guardsmen to the tsar and their readiness to sweep treason out of the country.

Oprichnina in form was a return to the times of feudal fragmentation. However, she pursued another goal - to destroy the remnants of feudal fragmentation in Russia.

In an effort to destroy the separatism of the feudal nobility, Ivan IV did not stop at any cruelty. Oprichnina terror began, executions, exile. In Tver, Metropolitan Philip of Moscow was killed; in Moscow, Prince Vladimir Staritsky, who had been called there, was poisoned. The center and north-west of the Russian lands, where the boyars were especially strong, were subjected to the most severe defeat. In 1579 Ivan IV undertook a campaign against Novgorod, which allegedly wanted to withdraw to Lithuania. On the way, Klin, Torzhok, Tver were defeated.

The oprichnina did not completely destroy the boyar-princely land tenure, but greatly weakened its power. The political role of the boyar aristocracy in the state, which opposed centralization, was undermined. At the same time, the oprichnina worsened the position of the peasantry and in many ways contributed to its enslavement. The defeat of the richest territories of the country during the years of the oprichnina and the Livonian War were the cause of the socio-political and foreign policy crisis in which Russia found itself at the turn of the XVI - XVII centuries.

Having defeated the boyar-princely opposition, Ivan IV met with new manifestations of separatism, but not only from the side of the boyars, but also among the top guardsmen.

The oprichnina could only have a temporary effect, since it was an attempt by brute force to break what rested on the economic laws of development characteristic of feudalism. Oprichnina led to an even greater aggravation of contradictions within the country, because the laws of economic development could not be changed by any executions and repressions.

The raid of the Crimean Tatars on Moscow in 1571, who burned the Moscow suburb, showed the inability of the oprichnina army to successfully fight external enemies. All this forced the tsar to abolish the oprichnina, which in 1572 was transformed into the "Tsar's Court".

The need to combat specific antiquity, the need for centralization and strengthening of statehood were objectively necessary for Russia. It was about the ways of centralization and the methods of its implementation. A number of historians believe that structural transformations similar to the reforms of the Chosen Rada could become an alternative to the oprichnina. This would allow, according to experts who share this point of view, instead of the unlimited autocracy of Ivan IV to have a class-representative monarchy with a "human face".

The reign of Ivan the Terrible largely predetermined the further history of our country - the "poor" of 70-80 years.

XVI c., the establishment of serfdom on a national scale and that complex knot of contradictions of the frontier XVI-

XVII centuries, which contemporaries call "distemper".

5. Culture

In the XVI in. the formation of the Great Russian people is completed. In the Russian lands, which became part of a single state, more and more things were found in common in language, life, customs, customs, etc. FROM XVI in. More tangibly than before, secular elements were manifested in culture.

The religious worldview still determined the spiritual life of society. The church used all its influence and power to strengthen its positions. The Stoglavy Cathedral of 1551 played an important role in this. It regulated art by approving the patterns that were to be followed. Rublev's work was formally proclaimed as a model in painting. But what was meant was not the artistic merits of his painting, but iconography - the arrangement of figures, the use of a certain color, etc. in each particular story or image. In architecture, the Assumption Cathedral of the Moscow Kremlin was put forward as a model, in literature - the works of Metropolitan Macarius and his circle.

Publicism

Events XVI in. caused a discussion in Russian journalism of many issues of that time: about the nature and essence of state power, about the church, about the place of Russia among other countries, etc. At the beginning XVI in. was created literary and publicistic "The Tale of the Princes of Vladimir", the content of which was intended to strengthen the authority of the supreme power. So, if in the "Tale of Bygone Years" the chronicler explained the emergence of princely power by calling the Varangians, then "The Tale of the Princes of Vladimir" deduced the origin of the Russian royal dynasty from the Roman emperor Augustus. This legendary historical work began with a description of Noah's Ark. Then followed a list of rulers of the world, among which the Roman emperor Augustus stood out. He allegedly sent his brother Prus to the banks of the Vistula, who foundedclan of the legendary Rurik. The latter was invited as a Russian prince. The heir of Prus and Rurik, and, consequently, of Augustus, Prince of Kyiv Vladimir Monomakh received from the Emperor of Constantinople the symbols of royal power - a crown-hat and precious mantle barms. Ivan the Terrible, proceeding from his kinship with Monomakh, proudly wrote to the Swedish king: "We are related to Augustus Caesar." The Russian state, according to Grozny, continued the traditions of the great Rome and the Kievan state.

Among the churchmen, the thesis was put forward about Moscow - the "third Rome". In their presentation, history appears as a process of changing world kingdoms. The first Rome - the "eternal city" perished because of heresies, the "Second Rome" - Constantinople because of the union with the Catholics. "Third Rome" - the true guardian of Christianity - Moscow, which will exist forever.

Reasoning about the need to create a strong autocratic power based on the nobility is contained in the writings of I.S. Peresvetov. Questions concerning the role and place of the nobility in the management of the feudal state were reflected in the correspondence of Ivan IV and Prince Andrei Kurbsky.

chronicle writing

In the XVI in. Russian chronicle continued to develop. Chronicle writings of this period include "The Chronicler of the Beginning of the Kingdom", which describes the first years of the reign of Ivan the Terrible and which proves the need to establish royal power in Russia.

Another major work of that time is the Power Book. Portraits and descriptions of the reigns of the great Russian princes and metropolitans in it are arranged in 17 degrees - from Vladimir I to Ivan the Terrible. Such an arrangement and construction of the text, as it were, emphasized the inviolability of the union of the church and the king.

In the middle of the XVI in. Moscow chroniclers prepared a huge chronicle code, a kind of historical encyclopedia XVI in. - the so-called Nikon chronicle (in XVII in. belonged to Patriarch Nikon). One of the lists of the Nikon Chronicle contains about 16 thousand miniatures - color illustrations, for which it received the name of the Facial Vault (face - image).

Along with chronicle writing, further development was given to historical stories that told about the events of that time. These are the stories "Kazan Capture", "About the Coming of Stefan Batory to the City of Pskov", etc. New chronographs were created.

The secularization of culture is evidenced by the writing of a book containing a variety of useful information and guidance in both spiritual and worldly life - "Domostroy" (in translation - housekeeping), the author of which is considered Sylvester.

Outstanding Cultural Event XVI in. - the emergence of Russian printing. The beginning of Russian book printing is considered to be 1564, when the first Russian dated book "The Apostle" was published. However, there are seven books with no exact publication date. These are the so-called anonyms - books published before 1564. One of the most talented

Beginning of printing

Russian people XVI in. Ivan Fedorov. Printing work begun in the Kremlin was transferred to Nikolskaya Street, where a special building was built for the printing house. In addition to religious books, Ivan Fedorov and his assistant Peter Mstislavets published the first Russian primer (in 1574 in Lvov). For the whole XVI in. in Russia, only 20 books were printed by typography. The handwritten book occupied a leading place in 16th and 17th centuries

Architecture

Strengthening the Russian Centralthe bathing state is marked by racescolor of national architecture.

One of its outstanding manifestations was the construction of hipped temples. Tent temples do not have pillars inside, and the entire mass of the building rests on the foundation. The most famous monuments of this style are the Church of the Ascension in the village of Kolomenskoye, built in honor of the birth of Ivan the Terrible, the Intercession Cathedral (St. Basil's), built in honor of the capture of Kazan.

Another trend in architecture XVI in. there was the construction of large five-domed monastic churches similar to the Moscow Assumption Cathedral. Similar temples were built in many Russian monasteries, and as the main cathedrals - in the largest Russian cities. The most famous are the Assumption Cathedral in the Trinity-Sergius Monastery, the Smolensky Cathedral of the Novodevichy Convent, cathedrals in Tula, Suzdal, Dmitrov and other cities.

Another branch of architecture XVI in. was the construction of small stone or wooden township churches. They were the centers of settlements inhabited by artisans of a certain specialty, and were dedicated to a certain saint - the patron of this craft.

In the XVI in. extensive construction of stone kremlins was carried out. In the 30s XVI in. the part of the settlement adjacent to the Moscow Kremlin from the east was surrounded by a brick wall, called Kitaygorodskaya (a number of historians believe that the name comes from the word "whale" - a knitting of poles used in the construction of the fortress). She defended the auction on Red Square and the nearby settlements. In the end XVI in. the architect F.Kon erected the white stone walls of the 9-kilometer White City (modern Boulevard Ring). Then Zemlyanoy Val was erected in Moscow - a 15-kilometer wooden fortress on the rampart (modern Garden Ring).

Stone guard fortresses were erected in the Volga region (Nizhny Novgorod, Kazan, Astrakhan), in cities south of Moscow (Tula, Kolomna, Zaraisk, Serpukhov) and west of Moscow (Smolensk), in northwestern Russia (Novgorod, Pskov, Izborsk, Pechory ) and even in the far north (Solovki Islands).

Craft

Russian craft reached a high level. This was especially evident in the field of foundry. Russian artillery appeared in 1382 when repulsing the raid of Tokhtamysh (several years later than in Europe). The casting of guns reached its peak in the works of Andrei Chekhov. The Tsar Cannon he created is still the largest artillery piece in the world in terms of caliber. It was intended for the defense of Moscow and was supposed to shoot grapeshot. The Tsar Cannon weighs 40 tons, and its caliber is 89 cm.

1. Introduction 3
2. Socio-economic characteristics of Russia by the middle of the XVI century 3
3. Main directions of expansion 4
1. Annexation of Pskov 4
2. Accession of the Ryazan principality 5
3. Return of Smolensk 6
4. Fight for Smolensk 6
5. Prospects for Russian-Lithuanian Confrontation 7
6. Kazan Khanate 7
7. Astrakhan Khanate 9
8. Chuvash and Bashkir state 10
9. Nogai Horde 12
10. Ural and Siberia 12
4. Conclusion 14
5. References 15

Introduction

The 16th and 17th centuries are an important milestone in the history of the Russian state. Because of the Tatar-Mongol yoke, Russia lagged far behind in its development from many European powers. It is still at the level passed by these countries several centuries ago.

In agriculture, old farming methods were used, there were obvious omissions in the political strategy: the state could not unite around one territory for a long time - the Moscow principality, and by the time Ivan IV came to the throne, this process had not been completed.

However, after getting rid of the Mongol-Tatars, life began to improve, which inevitably led to a sharp increase in the population; this phenomenon is observed after the liberation of any country either from the interventionists, or after a major and protracted war. As the population increased, so did the territory. As a result, a new territory was required. After the collapse of the Golden Horde, several much smaller independent states were formed in its place. Including the Kazan and Astrakhan khanates, located near the eastern and southern borders of Russia. The territories of Russia, bordering on the khanates, were not safe, since these peoples preached an aggressive policy.

After the annexation of the khanates, the Russian ruler had the opportunity to go beyond the Urals, to Siberia and try to annex this recalcitrant land, either peacefully or with the help of weapons.

In this work, I have listed all the territories through which Russia expanded in the 16th century, along with the method of their conquest, in chronological order. This work makes it possible to assess the scale of the increase in the area of ​​the Russian state, simultaneously analyzing the policies and tactics of Ivan IV, the rulers of the occupied lands and the generals who led the campaigns, through the prism of these conquests. Thus, we can not only supplement our ideas about such people as Ivan the Terrible, Yermak, but also look at this topic in general.

The area of ​​the annexed land is huge, which allows us to talk about the increased strength of the Russian state, about its development and improvement of the foreign policy situation around the country.

Socio-economic characteristics of Russia by the middle of the XVI century

In the middle of the 16th century, the process of unification of the principalities into a single state continued, the expansion of borders to the south, southeast, and east as a result of the overthrow of the Horde yoke. The territory increased almost tenfold, the population exceeded the mark of 10 million people and was distributed very unevenly. The most populated were the central regions from Tver to Nizhny Novgorod. The population of cities grew, Moscow by the beginning of the century had more than 100 thousand inhabitants, Novgorod, Pskov - more than 30 thousand, in other cities the number of inhabitants varied between 3 - 15 thousand; the urban population was about 2% of the total population.

The central regions of the country were an area of ​​developed arable farming with a stable three-field system. The development of the black earth lands of the "Wild Field" began, which separated Russia from the Crimean Khanate.

Compared with the previous century, trade increased, especially with foreign countries. After the annexation of the Kazan and Astrakhan khanates, the way to the East opens, in 1553 the northern route to Scandinavia and England from Arkhangelsk was opened.

In foreign policy in the 16th century, Russia faced a number of important issues such as the fight against the Kazan, Astrakhan, Crimean khanates, the struggle for access to the Baltic Sea, the strengthening of the eastern borders, the further development of Siberia, the unification of all lands around a single center, which became Moscow.

Annexation of Pskov

By the beginning of the 16th century. Pskov actually lost its independence, but for the time being it retained the old, veche order. The Moscow principality continued to unite the lands around itself. It annexed more and more new territories and a new unified Russian state was formed. Therefore, the new Prince Vasily decided to put an end to the unnecessary independence of Pskov for him and all of Moscow.

So in 1509 a governor was sent to Pskov - Prince Ivan Mikhailovich Repnya-Obolensky. He refused to recognize the laws of Pskov and did not take into account the veche. The Moscow governor himself established and collected taxes from the population, judged the Pskovites without the participation of representatives of the veche, that is, he behaved not like a prince of free Pskov, but like an ordinary governor of the "sovereign of all Russia." His behavior surprised and alarmed the people of Pskov, especially the posadniks and boyars. They decided to complain about him to the Grand Duke. Vasily III at that time arrived in Novgorod, allegedly in order to check the activities of his boyars in this city that had long been subordinate to Moscow. In fact, he was preparing the annexation of Pskov. In case of possible resistance of the Pskovites, a rather large army was brought from Moscow.

Having learned that the Grand Duke was in Novgorod, the Pskov boyars sent their ambassadors there with complaints about the new governor Repnya-Obolensky. Simple people went to complain about the harassment by the boyars and posadniks. There was also no agreement between the boyars themselves, and they complained about each other. Although Vasily III did not receive complainers, he knew from his boyars their petitions. It became clear to the Grand Duke that there were sharp contradictions within Pskov society and he had nothing to fear from the unanimous and united rebuff of the Pskovites.

When the day of January 6, 1510 came, the Pskov posadniks and boyars (and almost all the posadniks and many boyars from Pskov gathered in Novgorod) were invited to the Kremlin, to the Faceted Chamber. The commoners of Pskov remained waiting in the yard. The boyars of Vasily III announced the Grand Duke's will to the posadniks gathered in the Palace of the Facets. The Grand Duke demanded the destruction of the Pskov veche and the post of posadniks and the extension of the Moscow system of government to the Pskov land.

This meant the complete elimination of the Pskov feudal republic and the annexation of the Pskov land to Moscow. The posadniks and boyars gathered in the Novgorod Chamber of Facets were forced to accept the demand of the Moscow sovereign. After that, everyone was arrested and placed in a dungeon.

A few days later, the ambassador of Vasily III, Tretyak Dalmatov, left Novgorod. January 12, he arrived in Pskov; on the occasion of his arrival, a veche was convened, and he announced the speech of the sovereign of Moscow: if the veche does not agree with the demand of the Grand Duke, he will come here with a large army and the Pskovites will be responsible for the bloodshed. In confusion and fear, the people of Pskov listened to the Moscow ambassador. They asked him for permission to think and give an answer the next day. Tretiak allowed.

Some considered it necessary to reject the demand of Vasily III, lock themselves in the city and resist the Grand Duke. The majority understood the futility and uselessness of resistance. Without their military leaders - posadniks and boyars arrested in Novgorod - the Pskovites would have been able to organize a defense. But even if it were possible to do this, the very existence of Pskov without Moscow and Moscow's help is now unthinkable. The entire previous history of the Pskov land predetermined the answer that the Pskovites gave the Moscow ambassador the next day.

Early in the morning of January 13, the veche bell rang for the last time. The people of Pskov accepted all the demands of Vasily III and obeyed his will. Tretyak immediately ordered to remove the veche bell, the symbol of Pskov independence.

On January 24, Vasily III himself arrived in Pskov. At the Great Gates, he was met by the clergy and boyars, and on the trading square at the Holy Gates, all Pskov residents were waiting. The Grand Duke went to the Trinity Cathedral, where he served a thanksgiving service. The bishop, who served a prayer service, congratulated him "on the capture of Pskov."

Vasily III decided to consolidate the victory over the Pskov principality. In particular, he took care to remove his possible opponents from the city: all the boyars who still remained in Pskov were expelled from it within 24 hours. Boyar estates were selected in favor of the sovereign. Wealthy Pskov merchants, along with their families, were also sent to Moscow. From the territory of the Middle City - the central part of Pskov - all Pskov residents were evicted. Bargaining was moved to the territory of the Round City. Moscow nobles were sent to replace the Pskov boyars from Moscow and Novgorod. They were resettled in the Middle City and given them part of the land taken from the boyars on their estates. About 300 Moscow merchants were resettled in Pskov. Thus, the top of the Pskov society has completely changed, now it was made up of nobles and merchants - immigrants from the Moscow land.

The management system of the Pskov land has also changed. Pskov was now ruled by two grand princely governors from among the noble Moscow boyars. They had administrative, military and judicial power. One governor was sent to the suburbs. The assistants to the governors were clerks. Also sent from Moscow. The Pskov judicial charter was replaced by a new charter given by Vasily III. However, the new charter retained at first many of the old judicial laws of Pskov. The Moscow system of taxes was introduced in Pskov land. More burdensome for the population than the old Pskov.

Vasily III nevertheless retained insignificant remnants of Pskov independence. The Pskovites were allowed to elect 24 elders from among the merchants and wealthy artisans. These elders made up the so-called zemstvo national hut. They received the right to participate in the decision of court cases and in the collection of taxes from the population. The money yard has been preserved in Pskov. Where coins were minted until 1626.

So the Pskov land was included in the Russian centralized state.

Accession of the Ryazan principality

The conquest and annexation of Ryazan was rather a formal matter, because the principality could not give a real rebuff due to its weakness and political disorganization. While the last Grand Duke of the Ryazan principality, Ivan Ivanovich, was a baby, his great-uncle, "the sovereign of all Russia" Ivan III, ruled Ryazan. Under Vasily III, guardianship over Ryazan intensified, and then the Ryazan boyars, led by the matured Prince Ivan, decided to fight for the preservation of the remnants of political independence. To this end, the people of Ryazan began to secretly maintain relations with the Crimean Khan, which immediately became known in Moscow. In 1521, Prince Ivan, under a plausible pretext, was called to the great sovereign and quietly put into prison. And although he later managed to escape, he did not receive his former support in his own principality and ended his days in Lithuania as a petty governor. As after the annexation of Pskov, many noble Ryazanians were "brought" to Moscow volosts, and Moscow service people were settled in their land holdings. This was done for the sake of the unity of Moscow with neighboring principalities, for the sake of preventing the Time of Troubles and the falling away of lands from Great Russia.

Return of Smolensk

Vasily returned from Pskov affairs to Lithuanian ones. In 1512 the war began. Smolensk was its main goal. In 1513, the sieges of Smolensk began, but they did not bring success. Finally, in the summer of 1514, Smolensk was besieged for the third time. Under the furious pressure of the Moscow cannons, the Smolensk people were forced to start negotiations, during which Prince Mikhail Glinsky, who was in the camp of the besiegers, convinced the townspeople to go over to the side of Vasily III, otherwise threatening a long and cruel blockade. As a result, Smolensk resisted for a very short time and opened the gates only after a month of siege - on July 30, 1514, Mikhail Glinsky, who played one of the key roles in the capture of Smolensk, received absolutely nothing in the end, although the sovereign promised to make him the governor of the city. In response to this, he tried to flee, but was captured by the Moscow chase, led by Prince Mikhail Bulgakov. As a result, luck completely turned away from Glinsky, and he was sent to prison.

The folding of the Russian autocracy belongs to this time. The content of this concept has changed. At first, he designated independence from foreign domination, then autocracy (that is, the power of the king, which extended to the entire state in which sovereign principalities were liquidated), and only then - unlimited power. "Autocracy" in last value concepts characteristic of the Russian state since the XVI century.

Formed in the late XV - early XVI century. The Russian state developed as part of the global civilization. However, one should take into account the uniqueness of the conditions in which this development took place. The territory of Russia lay in a zone of sharply continental climate with a short agricultural summer. The country had no access to warm seas. In the absence of natural borders, the constant struggle against external aggression required the strain of all the resources of the country. The Russian state managed to achieve political unity in the absence of intensive economic ties. By the end of the XVI century. Russia's territory has almost doubled in comparison with the middle of the century. It included the lands of Kazan (1557), Astrakhan (1556) and Siberian khanates (1604), Bashkiria (1557). There was a development of fertile lands on the southern outskirts of the country - the Wild Field. Attempts were made to reach the Baltic coast.

The first years of the reign of Ivan IV are divided into two periods: the regency of Elena Glinskaya, the widow of Vasily III (1533-1538), and the boyar rule (1538-1547). This term has been adopted in historical literature to denote the management of the Russian state by the warring court parties of the Shuiskys, Belskys, Vorontsovs, Glinskys, who succeeded each other in power after the death in April 1538 of E. Glinskaya.

By the end of the reign of Ivan IV, the territory of the country had increased by more than 10 times compared to what his grandfather Ivan III inherited in the middle of the 15th century. It included rich and fertile lands, but they still needed to be developed. With the entry of the lands of the Volga region, the Urals, Western Siberia, the multinational composition of the country's population increased even more. At that time, there were approximately 220 cities in Russia. The largest city was Moscow, whose population was about 100 thousand people. The rest of the cities of Russia, as a rule, had 3-8 thousand people each.

The foreign policy of Russia in the 16th century was the annexation and development of new lands. The annexation of Kazan and Astrakhan opened up the possibility of advancing to Siberia. Trying to reach the Baltic coast, Ivan IV waged a grueling Livonian war for 25 years. In case of success, the possibility of acquiring new economically developed lands opened up. But in the end, Russia suffered a number of failures in this war, the only acquisition was the city of Polotsk. The command system has expanded significantly. In the middle of the 16th century, there were already two dozen orders. The design of the order system made it possible to centralize the administration of the country. A unified local management system began to take shape.

Thus, in the middle of the XVI century. the apparatus of state power was formed in the form of a caste representative monarchy. Under Ivan the Terrible, military reform was also carried out. According to his plan, a “chosen thousand” was planted near Moscow - 1070 provincial nobles, who were to become his support. In 1550, a permanent archery army was created. Reforms of the 50s of the XVI century. contributed to the strengthening of the country. They strengthened the power of the king, led to the reorganization of local and central government, strengthened military power countries.

The events and processes that took place in Russia in the 16th century largely predetermined the direction and pace of the subsequent development of the country.

It is during this period:

The process of unification of various lands into a single Russian state was completed;

The mechanism of government was formed;

The nature of the relationship between the state and the feudal lords (complete lack of rights) was determined;

Relations between feudal lords and peasants (serfdom) took shape, which, with modifications, existed for more than three centuries until the beginning of the 20th century.

An important event in political life country was the adoption on January 16, 1547 by Ivan IV of the title of king.

The factor that accelerated the centralization of the Russian state was the threat of an external attack, which forced the Russian lands to unite in the face of a common enemy. It is characteristic that when the formation of the Russian centralized state began, the defeat of the Mongol-Tatar troops on the Kulikovo field became possible. And when Ivan III managed to collect almost all Russian lands and lead them against the enemy, the Tatar yoke was finally overthrown. It is known that only a powerful centralized state can cope with an external enemy. Therefore, rather broad masses of the people were also interested in his education.