Most researchers recognize that soon after the occurrence of life, it was divided into three roots, which can be called supervisors. Apparently, the most features of the initial protoorganisms retained the archaebacteria, which were previously united with real bacteria - eubacteria. The archaebacteria is inhabited in oxygen-free flashes concentrated solutions of salts, hot volcanic sources. The second powerful talent is eupported. From the third root, the branch of organisms having a core with a shell developed, eukaryota. There is an edge hypothesis (separated by all the pains of the number of scientists) that eukaryotes arose as a result of symbiosis of their ancestors with the consecration of mitochondria and chloropa, aerobic bacteria and cyanobacteria (Fig. 5.3). This hypothesis gives a satisfactory explanation to many similarities in the structure and biochemical features of organelle - intracellular energy sources of eukaryota, - with such self-lived prokaryotes. The enormous importance for the development of the biosphere as a whole had the occurrence and distribution of one of the groups of eubacteria - cyanobacte-rose. They are able to carry out oxygen photosynthesis, and as a result of their life-activities in the Earth's atmosphere, oxygen had to appear in sufficiently pain of the amounts. The appearance of oxygen in the atmosphere determined the possibility of post-complied with plants and animals. Eukarot's talent is very early, apparently, more than a billion years old, divided by the kingdom of animals, rashes and mushrooms. Mushrooms are closer to livestock than to plants (Fig. 5.4). Until now, the position of the simplest is not quite clear - should they unite them into a single kingdom or divided into several? Finally, a small group of mucus uniformly is unfulfilled that only with difficulty can be included in the kingdom of mushrooms, with which it is traditionally combined. Apparently, multicellularity arose independently in mushrooms, plants, intestine and other animals. The main paths of the evolution of plants. The number of species now existing plants reaches more than 500 thousand, of which the flowering flowers are about 300 thousand species. The remains of green algae are found in the rocks of the Archean age (about 3 billion years ago). A lot of different pre-orders of green and golden algae lived in the priests in the seas. At the same time, apparently, the first attached to the bottom of the algae appeared. Primary soil-forming pro-symbols in Proterezhoy prepared conditions for the exit of real plants on land. In the Si-Lura (435-400 million years ago) in the kingdom of plants there is a major evolutionary event: plants (rhinofitis) come to land. In the first periods of Paleozoic, the plants are inhabited mainly by the sea. Among the attached to the bottom there are green and brown algae, and in the thickness of water - diatoms, golden, red and other algae. From the very beginning of evolution, parallel with real plants existed and developed groups with autotrophic and heterotrophic nutrition, complementary to each other into the cycle of substances. This contributed to increased integrity. vegetable world and its relative autonomy. Primary phototrophic lower plants were also diverse in composition, among them there were groups with chlorophyll and "b", with high content of caroteninoids and chlorophyll "C" and, finally, groups with a predominance of ficobilins. Probably between these groups of or-g b in r. 5.5. Some fossil plants of Carbon: A - Cordite (Cordaites IEVIS); B - sigillaria (segillaria); In Lepidodendron (Lepidodendron); Glocamit (CAIARNITES) Ganisms did not have genetic unity. The diversity of the composition of the primary phototroids was caused, undoubtedly, rather heterogeneous conditions of existence and allowed to fully use the particular environment. At the end of the silica, the appearance of the first land plants - psilifics, which were covered with a solid green carpet of coastal sushi sections. It was an important evolutionary step. There is a perestroika in the conductive system and coating fabrics: psulietics appear a conductive vascular system with a weakly differentiated xylem and a floem, cuticle and dust. Psulfiti turned out to be more securely attached to the substrate with the help of dichotomically branched lower axes: some of them found primitive "leaves". Psuliefs occupied an intermediate position between terrestrial vascular plants and algae: externally were similar to algae, the body was not differentiated on the vegetative organs and had a large evaporating surface. The further evolution of plants in the ground conditions led to increased body compactness, the appearance of roots, the development of epidermal tissue with thick-walled, impregnated with waxing cells, replacing the tracheide vessels, changes in the methods of reproduction, distribution, etc. The most primitive vascular system consisted of tracheid. Transition from tracheid to vessels - adaptation to dry conditions; With the help of vessels, it is possible to quickly raise water to large heights. The transition to the vessels began in the roots, stems, then in the leaves. The initial stages of the evolution of terrestrial plants are associated with the occurrence of archelate forms - moss, fern and viced. In all these groups, the female sexual is represented by Archegan, and the male - Anterida. It is assumed that archegonial originated from brown or green algae. When leaving the land, the protection of gamenhaiyev algae from the drainage was provided to the pre-formation of them in Archeganius and Anteridia. This was facilitated by the change in the shape of gaments and the formation of many-layer walls. From the moment of entering the land, the plants develop in two main directions: a gametophyte and spore. The gamethophytic direction was represented by moss-shaped, and the sporing - the rest of the highest plants, including flowering. The spore branch turned out to be more relevant to ground conditions: a special development reaches the root system, complicates and improved the conductive system, covering and mechanical fabrics are noticeably improved, and the methods of reproduction (see below) and opportunities are created to reduce the frequency of manifestation of the emerging lethal and other - High mutations (as a result of the diplomacy of the body). In terrestrial conditions, freely floating unprotected sex cells were unsuitable for reproduction, there are disputes, diversified by wind, or seeds for the purposes of reproduction. Already in Devon there are magnificently developed forests from progress, ferns and plauines (Fig. 5.5). These forests are further distributed in carbon, characterized by a moistened and evenly warm climate throughout the year. Powerful disputes - lepidodendrons and sygillaries - reached 40 m of heights. In Carbon, the first seeds were developed - the first seed - voted: Perdos-Permum, wood cordates and ginkgovy, part of which dies in Perm, about 280 million years ago. The general line of the evolution of fantosy-shaped on land went along the way of converting sporophyte (the most powerful generation). He has achieved perfection as a variety of forms (trees and grass) and in structure. In the arid conditions, the Gamenaophyte (sexual generation) has already become no interference due to the need for drip-liquid water to transfer Games. Therefore, the reduction of the gamethophyt and the significant development of sporophyte during the further evolution of land plants during the further evolution of land plants are not surprising. One of the important evolutionary acquisitions is the emergence of separators of seed plants. Starting with Lepidoddendron, some plauenovoid (Selaginell), ferns and seed ferns are fixed; Mega and Microspores are developing in sneakers of spores. Such an event is noted in the silver - devo-no, i.e. approximately 400 million years ago. Me-Gasporangia had 4 megasives, and micro-sporangies are many microspores. DiP-fermentation of sporangies and spores led to the emergence of different sizes of GaMetophytes (including very small) and disagreement of male and female gametophytes, which ultimately had an impact on the reduction of the GaMetophyte (the haploid body). The reduction of Gametophyte contributed to the elongation of the diploid phase of the development of the body, the elongation and complication of differentiation and ontogenesis processes. HE randomly that the first pavements reached gigantic sizes; These are sigillaria, lepidodendrons, giant ferns, Calamites. The most important event in the life of the gone is the transformation of megasoprangia in the segments, a seedness with protective cover - integments and complete exemption from all seed process of sexual reproduction from water. Microspores from gathering turn into the nest of the anther. The sperm of most voted is fixed, and their transfer to arhelerges is carried out by a pollen tube. The loss of the male gametophyte of independence led to its reduction to the pollen tube with a vegetative core and two spermatozoa. Pollination by the vote-free is carried out by the wind and often by Nasa -ckle, after fertilization, the seed turns into a seed. Note that the seed appears in seed franks in Devon, that is, long before the development of the flower. The transition to seed reproduction is associated with a number of evolutionary advantages; The diploid embryo in the seeds is protected from non-favorable conditions for the presence of cover and is provided with food, and seeds have devices for spreading animals, etc. These and other benefits contributed to the widespread spread of seed plants. The immediate ancestors of the coated bridge are not yet found in the fossil form. It is believed that the coated bridges originate from Bennetite (S.V. Maine). With the latter, primitive coated brine are similar to the presence of general features in the structure of wood, dust, pollen, entomophilia, etc. The pranodina covered bridges consider areas with seven-year or seasonally dry climates, where they had the greatest chances of making disturbed ecosystems due to the high pace of generative development and the formation of the embryo ( Strebbins). Similar features have just possessed ranners of benette and cicades. There is an assumption about the appearance of signs that characterize the flowering (vessels in wood, mesh housing, marking, stilts, double fertilization), in parallel and apart from different relatives and non-unrelated groups. Flower Womens, when all these signs are concentrated in the same group. This path of becoming is characteristic of other taxa (see ch. 17, 20). The phylogenetic relationships of the main groups of plants are presented in Fig. 5.6. Flower plants , gradually spreading, conquer extensive spaces. In the process of evolution of the coated flower (the main characteristic organ) undergoes significant changes. The flower axis is a blossom - gradually shortening, interstices come closer, the spiral arrangement of the flower parts goes into the cyclic, the process of reducing the number of homologous parts (oligomerization) occurs. The first primitive entomophilic flowers attracted insects abundance of pollen, which simultaneously contributed to cross-pollination. The advantage of those plants that have a high hereditary plasticity of the offspring, a high probability of pollination and seed-cutting. In the future, the selection of plants went along the way to attract pollinators with the help of nectar, flavor, coloring and specialization of flowers on pollination with certain types of insects. In this way, there was a minor of growing growing and animals according to the corresponding initiatives. When pollution insects, the possibility of free crossing of plants of one species increases, which serves as one of the causes of the high evolutionary plants of the flowering plants. In the flowering (unlike viced) even trees are represented by many different forms. The flowers were also adapted to use the Wednesday by rapidly-vita and the accumulation of organic substitute. In Cenozoa (beginning - 66 million years ago), the whole of Europe was covered with lush forests of warm and moderate climates, including oak, birch, pine, chestnut, beech, grapes, nuts, etc. At this time, the forests achieved the greatest spread on Earth. In the tropical flora of this period, ficuses, laurels, cloves, eucalyptus, grapes, etc. In the quaternary period of the Cenozoic era (2 million years ago), the amount of precipitation increased and the glaciation of a significant part of the Earth has occurred, which caused the retreat of thermal-loving tertiary vegetation to the south (and in some places Full extinction of it), the occurrence of cold-resistant herbal and shrub plants. In the huge territories, the steppew forest changes are completed in Miocene, xerophytic and ephemeral vegetation are formed with a pronounced seasonality in the development cycle, modern phytocenoses are folded. Thus, the vegetation of our planet has constantly changed, acquiring more and more modern features. The main features of the evolution of the kingdom of plants are as follows: I. Transition from haploid to the diploid. With the diplotization of the body, the effect of manifestation of adverse mutations decreased, the morphogenetic potency of the body increased. Many algae all cells (except zigotes) haploid. In more highly organized algae (brown, etc.), along with haploid, there are also diploid individuals. Mukhov prevails a haploid generation with a relatively weak development of the diploid. The diploid generation prevails, the diploid generation prevails, and they have a haploid generation (hazo-fit) is still represented by independent education, almost complete reduction of the gamethophyt and the transition to the diploid phase (Fig. 5.7) are observed. 2. Loss of communication of the process of sexual reproduction with the presence of drip-liquid water, the loss of mobility of men's weights, a noticeable reduction of the gametophyte and the strong development of sporophyte, the transition from external fertilization to the inner, the appearance of a flower and double fertilization.? 2. Differentiation of the body with the transition to ground conditions: division into root, stem and leaf, development of a network of conductive system, improving coating, mechanical and other tissues. 3. Specialization of pollination (with the help of insects) and the spread of seeds and fruits of animals. Strengthening the protection of the embryo from unfavorable conditions: providing food, the formation of covers, etc. The main paths of the evolution of animals. The kingdom of animals is no less diverse than the kingdom of plants, and by the number of species, animals are superior to plants. OKO-JLO I Mul Milli 200 thousand types of animals (about 900 thousand species - arthropods, 110 thousand - mollusks, 42 thousand - chordan animals) and it is believed that it can only be half existing species. The occurrence of animals in fossil residues is not traced. The first remains of animals are found in the nautical sediments of the Proterezhoy, whose age exceeds I billion years. The first multicellular animals are represented at once with several types: sponges, intestinal, prazheodes, arthropods. All major types of animals have already existed in the seas of the Cambrian period. The appearance of the fauna was determined by numerous helper (similar to modern swords), sponges, corals, igblerine, a variety of mollusks, plehenodes, trilobites (Fig. 5.8). After Cambrian, the evolution of animals was characterized only by specialization and improving the main types. The exception is vertebral, the remains of which are found in Ordovic. These were the so-called global - creatures, remotely similar to co-temporal headlamps (media, mixtures), but coated from the dorsal powerfully developed bone plates. They assume that they defended the first small (about 10 cm long) vertebrates from huge predatory crustaceans: numerous corals lived in the warm and shallow seas of the Ordovka, a significant development was achieved by cephalopod of mollusks - creatures similar to modern squids, a few meters long. The silurian period was marked by important events not only for plants, but also for animals. Animals breathing air appeared. The first inhabitants of the sushi were spiderman, reminded on the structure of modern scorpions. Meanwhile, in the reservoirs there was a rapid development of various lower rounds, primarily shell fish. It is assumed that the first vertebrae arose in shallow fresh reservoirs. Gradually, during Devon, these fresh-water forms conquer the seas and oceans in Devon the same two-way, cyzer and burglar fish. All of them were adapted to breathing in water. There were some kinds of two-ways to this day (Fig. 5.9), the ambulance performed began to be the beginning with modern bony fish, and the cyzerly - primary amphibian (Steodacemflam). Steodacephali appeared in the Upper Devon; At about the same time, another extremely progressive group of animals occurs - insects. In the development of vertebrate lines and invertebrates, two different trends were manifested in solving the same tasks. The transition to the aircraft from water demanded the strengthening of the main bearing bodies and the whole body as a whole. The vertebrate role of the carcass plays the inner skeleton, higher Forms Invertebrates - arthropods - external skeleton. The development in the medium that required increasingly complex behavioral reactions was declared in these two branches of the Tree of Life in two fundamentally different ways. Insects have an extremely complex nervous system, with vast and relatively independent nerve centers, the prevalence of innate reactions acquired throughout the body. For vertebrates - the development of a huge brain and the predominance of conditional reflexes over unconditional. In the coal period, the first reptiles appear, which determined the beginning of the active conquest of sushi vertebrates. Reptiles Due to dry durable conquers, eggs covered with solid shell and not afraid of drying, were little associated with water bodies. In this period, such ancient groups of insects such as dragonflies and cockroaches occur and achieve significant development. In the Perm period, Stekocephali begin to disappear and various reptiles are widely distributed. From primitive reptiles from the whole group group at this time, the branch of the pelicosis, which led a little later - through the therapist - to the emergence of mammals. At the end of the Paleozoic, there is a significant desperation of climate. Therefore, the turbulent development undergo a variety of reptiles; To this day, Gatteria and Turtle lived from Triassic Rep-Triily. Some reptiles become predators, other - rubbing, the third - WTO-WTO returned to the aqueous medium (Fig. 5.10), providing them with food in the form of numerous forms of bony fish and natives of mollusks. However, marine reposities in Yura (ichthyosaution, Plesiosaur) reaches particularly strong development. That-gda the same reptiles are mastered and the waters of the Wednesday - the pterosaurs arise, apparently beyond the numerous and large insects. In Triassa, birds arise from one of the branches of reptile; The first birds are bizarrely combined signs of rep-Tili and birds (see Fig. 6.3). Fig. 5.11. Scheme of the maximum propagation of coating glaciation in Europe in a playfully price. The last powerful glaciation, covering the neck of the whole Scandinavia and part of the Baltic, turned out only about 10 thousand years ago: I - 230 thousand years ago. 2 - 100 thousand years ago; 3 - 65-50 thousand years ago; 4 - 23 thousand years ago; 5 - 11 thousand years ago (according to various authors) In the chalk period, Reptile specialization continues: giant-sky herbivorous dinosaurs arise, there are flying lizards with wings to 20 m. Renal events occurs, and in the world of insects - begins Ak-tape conjugate evolution of entomophilic plants and insect pollinators. The process of extinction of ammonites, whites, sea lizards occurs. In connection with the reduction of spaces engaged in rich in coastal vegetation, the vegetative dinosaurs die off, and the predatory dinosaurs whistled on them. Only in the tropical belt are large reptiles (crocodiles). Under the conditions of cooling, the exceptional advantages are obtained by warm-blooded animals - birds and mammals, which bloom only in the next period - Cenozoic. Cenozoa is the heyday of insects, birds and mammals. At the end of the mesozoic, placental mammals occur. In Paleocene and Eocene from insectivores, the first predators occur. At the same time or a few later, the first mammals begin to conquer the sea (cetaceans, laston-either, lilac). From the ancient predatory, hoofs occur, from the insectivores are separated by the detachment of primates. By the end of Neogen, all modern family of mammals are found, on extensive open spaces Savannnes Africa appear numerous forms of monkeys, many of which are moving to straightening. One of the groups of such monkeys - Australopitets - gave branches leading to the genus Homo (see ch. 18). Trends in the development of the most progressive branches of the life of animals leading to the emergence of a mustache, the trend of animals leading to the emergence of a mustache, a herd lifestyle (which became a step towards the emergence of the social form of motion of matter) especially clearly. In a quaternary, or anthropogen, the Cenozoic period was observed sharp changes in the climate of our planet, mainly associated with gradual cooling. On this general background, the phases of particularly sharp cooling were repeatedly repeated, at which there were significant halted beings of sushi in the average latitudes of the northern hemisphere. Maximum propagation The mainland glaciations reached during the middle Pleistocene - about 250 thousand years ago. On the territory of Europe in Pleistocene there are at least five such glacial periods (Fig. 5.11). Of great importance for the evolution of modern fauna was the fact that at the same time with the onset of the glacial periods there was significant fluctuations in the level of the world ocean: at different periods, this level was dropped or raised for hundreds of meters relatively with modern. With such oscillations of the ocean level, most of North America and Northern Eurasia could be found. This, in turn, led to the emergence of land "bridges" of the type of Bering Sushi, connecting North America and Northern Eurasia, the connection of the British islands with the European mainland, etc. P. In Europe, 5-6 thousand years ago, the climate was noticeably the warmer of modern. However, these climate change no longer played such a significant role in changing the species composition of the animal of the world, which person began to play, not only destroying many types of animals and plants (according to some calculations, a person by the middle of the XX century. Destroyed more than 200 species of animals), but also Creating new pets and now that is now the grand integrity of the evolutionary process management. In the evolution of animals, several trunk directions for the development of adaptation can be outlined: 1. The occurrence of multicelligence and increasing differentiation of all organ systems. 2. The occurrence of a solid skeleton (outdoor - in arthropods, internally - in vertebrates). 3. Development of the central nervous system. Two different and extremely effective evolutionary "decisions": the vertebrates of brain development based on training and conditional reflexes, and the increase in the values \u200b\u200bof individual individuals; Insects - the development of the nervous system associated with the hereditary consolidation of any type of reactions by the type of instincts. 4. Development of sociality in Rada branches of animal tree from different sides suitable to the Rubel, separating the biological form of motion of matter from the social form of movement. All one branch of primates was able to step over this line - a man. 5.3.

Covered compared to other higher plants are currently dominated in the vegetation cover of the Earth. They turned out to be "winners in the struggle for existence," because Could adapt to K. various conditions Life Thanks to the following features:

The seed is protected by the fruit that is formed from the flower;

Plants are pollinated not only with the help of wind, but also with the help of insects and other animals, which attracts nectar flowers;

Fruits have a variety of devices for seed resettlement by wind, water, animals;

Conductive system connecting the above-ground and underground part is developed better than all other plant departments;

Vegetative organs (roots, stems, leaves) are very diverse in structure, depending on habitat;

Covered bridges are represented by a variety of life forms: trees, shrubs, herbs;

Along with seed reproduction, vegetative is widespread;

Thus, the dominance of coated in modern flora is associated with the advent of a new generative body (flower), a variety of vegetative organs, the emergence of various methods of nutrition and reproduction.

What is AIDS and what is the danger of this disease?

Envunodeficiency Syndrome (AIDS) is an infectious disease that affects the human immune system. The causative agent is the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), which is settled in T-lymphocytes and destroys them, violating the immune response of the body to penetrate the infection and the occurrence of tumor cells. As a result of such an impact of HIV, any infection (for example, staphylococcus) can lead to a fatal outcome.

The special danger of AIDS is a long asymptomatic incubation periodWhen even the patient himself does not know that it is a source of infection.

Not yet found a vaccine or a drug from AIDS, medical care is to relieve the symptoms of the disease. Mortality for today is 100% of the number of infected.

Ways of transmission of the virus: Sex, from mother to the fruit, through blood.

The prevention of the disease is the interruption of transmission paths.

Sex can be interrupted:

abstaining from sexual relationship;

responsible selection of a partner;

using a condom.

The way to transmit HIV through blood from the mother to the fetus is extremely difficult to interrupt (permanent medical control is needed since the conception).

HIV can get into the blood:

1) when using non-sterile medical instruments (injections, teeth treatment);

2) as a result of violation hygienic requirements To carry out cosmetic procedures (manicure, pedicure).

HIV is distributed among drug addicts, because For intravenous injections, they use a common syringe.

Thus, to prevent AIDS may be compliance with the norms of personal and social hygiene.

Ticket number 3.
1. Describe the features of the skeleton of a person who have arisen in connection with straightening and employment.
3. What are the main ways to enter the human organism of radionuclides, what are the measures of warning?

1. Describe the features of the skeleton of a person who have arisen in connection with straightening and employment.

I. Similarity in the structure of human skeletons and mammal animals:

1. Skeletons consist of the same departments: skull, torso ( rib cage and spine), upper and lower limbs, belts of the limbs.

2. These departments are formed by the same sequence of bone compound.

For example:

chest - ribs, chest, breast spine;

upper limb:

1) shoulder (shoulder bone);

2) forearm (elbow and radial bone);

3) brush (wrist, plucked and phalange of fingers);

belt of the upper limbs - blades, clavicle;

lower limb:

1) thigh (femoral bone);

2) the shin (big and small ber);

3) Stop (replous, plus, phalanges of fingers);

belt lower limbs - pelvic bones.

II. Differences in the structure of human and animal skeletons:

1. The brain department of the skull is greater than the facial. This is due to the development of the brain as a result of work.

2. The bone of the lower jaw has a chin protrusion, which is associated with the development of speech.

3. The spine has four smooth bends: cervical, chest, lumbar, sacral, which absorb shocks when walking, run, jumps.

4. Due to the vertical position of the body, the chest person is expanded to the parties.

5. The pelvis has a form of a bowl and is a support for internal organs.

6. A vaulted foot amortizes the shocks when walking, running, jumps.

7. All bones of the brush and their connection with the wrist are very movable, the thumb is opposed to the rest. Hand is a labor body. The development of the thumb and its opposition to everyone else, thanks to which the brush is capable of performing a variety of and extremely thin labor operations. This is associated with labor activities.

Thus, the similarity in the structure of skeletons is associated with a single origin, and differences with straightening, labor activity and the development of speech.

2. How do organisms interact with each other in the environment? Give examples of organisms coexistence forms.

The following types of influences of some organisms on the other are possible:

Positive - one organism is beneficial by another.

Negative - the body is harm due to the other.

Neutral - the other does not affect the organism.

Methods of coexistence organisms

Mutualism - mutually beneficial relationship between organisms. Mutualism can be "harsh" or "soft." In the first case, cooperation is vital for both partners, in the second relationship more or less optional.

Leech, living on the lobster abdomen and exterminating only the dead and

drinking eggs that lobster wears attached to the abdomen;

Fish clown lives near the actinium, in the event of a threat, the fish finds a refuge in

actinium tentacles, while the clown fish drive out other fish that love

to enjoy the acts.

Commminasalism - Relationship between individuals or groups of different species that exist without conflict and without mutual assistance. Options for commensalism:

· The commemmose is limited by the use of the organism of another species (in the twist of the shell's shell, a ring, fed by the residues of cancer food);

· The commensal is attached to the body of another species, which becomes the "owner" (for example, the fish-adhesive finished with a shark and other fish, moving with their help);

· The commensal settles in the internal bodies of the owner (for example, some flagendrians live in the intestine of mammals).

Amenzalism - The type of interspecific relationship, in which one species referred to as amenasal is undergoing inhibition of growth and development, and the second, referred to as inhibitor, is not subject to such tests.

The effect of dominant trees on the types of moss and herbal tiers: under the canopy

trees decreases light, air humidity increases.

Predation - Trophic relationship between organisms, in which one of them (predator) attacks the other (sacrifice) and feeds on parts of his body. For example, lions eat buffaloes; Bears catch fish.

The concept of adaptation

Adaptation is the process of fixture of living organisms to certain conditions of the external environment. There are the following types of adaptation:

Environmental groups of plants in relation to light:

• a) animal adaptation to light
• b) green plants are needed for the formation of chlorophyll, the formation of the grannation structure of chloroplasts; It regulates the operation of the oyster apparatus, affects gas exchange and transpiration, activates a number of enzymes, stimulates protein biosynthesis and nucleic acids.

The light affects the division and stretching of cells, the growth processes and the development of plants, determines the timing of flowering and fruiting, has a formative effect. But the most important is the light in plants in air power, in the use of solar energy in the process of photosynthesis. This is associated with the main adaptation of plants in relation to the light. This is evidenced by the entire course of the evolution of terrestrial higher plants.

Photoauthotrophs are capable of assimilating CO2 using the radiant energy of the Sun and transforming it into the energy of chemical bonds in organic compounds. Purple and green bacteria having bacteriochlorophylls are capable of absorbing light in the long-wavelength part (maxima in the 800--1100 nm region). This allows them to exist even if there are invisible infrared rays. Algae and higher green plants - chlorophyll-containing organisms whose distribution depends on sunlight.

On land for higher photo auto plants, the coverage conditions are practically favorable everywhere, and they grow everywhere, where climatic and soil conditions allow, adapting to the lighting regime of this habitat.

Algae dwells in reservoirs, but they are found on land, on the surface of different items - on the trunks of trees, at the fences, on the rocks, on the snow, on the surface of the soil and in its thicker.

The light mode of any habitat is determined by the intensity of direct and scattered light, the amount of light (annual total radiation), its spectral composition, as well as the albedo-reflectivity of the surface to which the light falls. The listed elements of the light mode are very changed and depend on the geographic position, height above sea level, from the relief, the state of the atmosphere, the nature of the earth's surface, vegetation, from the time of day, season of the year, solar activity and global changes to the atmosphere.

In plants there are various morphological and physiological adaptations to the lighting modes of habitats.

At the request of the lighting conditions, it is customary to divide the plants on the following ecological groups:

• 1) light-loving (light), or helofitis, - plants of open, constantly well illuminated habitats;
• 2) Telebobile (shadow), or scyophytes - plants of the lower taps of shady forests, caves and deep-water plants; They poorly carry strong lighting with straight sunshine;
• 3) shadowish, or optional helophids, can carry more or less shading, but grow well in light; They are easier than other plants are rebuilt under the influence of changing lighting conditions.
• B) animal light prerequisite Vision, visual orientation in space. Scattered, reflected from the surrounding items, the rays perceived by the organs of animals give them a significant part of the information about the external world. The development of vision in animals went parallel to the development of the nervous system.

The completeness of the visual perception of the environment depends in animals primarily on the degree of evolutionary development. The primitive eyes of many invertebrates are simply light-sensitive cells surrounded by a pigment, and at unicellites - a photosensitive section of the cytoplasm. The process of perception of light begins with photochemical changes of visual pigment molecules, after which an electrical impulse occurs. The organs of vision from individual eyes do not give images of objects, and perceive only vibrations of illumination, alternation of light and shadows, indicating changes in environment. The shaped vision is possible only with a sufficiently complex eye device. Spiders, for example, can distinguish the contours of moving items at a distance of 1--2 cm. The most advanced organs of vision - the eyes of vertebrates, challenges and insects. They allow you to perceive the shape and size of objects, their color, determine the distance. The ability to the volume vision depends on the angle of the eye and on the degree of overlapping their fields. Volumetric vision, for example, is typical for humans, primates, a number of birds - owls, falcons, eagles, vultures. Animals whose eyes are located on the sides of the head, have monocular, plane vision.

The maximum sensitivity of the highly developed eyes is huge. The person accustomed to the dark can distinguish the light, the intensity of which is determined by the energy of only five quanta, which is close to a physically possible limit.

The concept of visible light is somewhat conditionally, since individual species of animals differ greatly by the ability to perceive different rays of the sunshine. For a person, the area of \u200b\u200bvisible rays is from purple to dark red.

Some animals, such as rare snakes, see the infrared part of the spectrum and catch prey in the dark, focusing with the help of organs of vision. For bees, the visible part of the spectrum is shifted into a shortwave-wave area. They perceive as a color considerable part of ultraviolet rays, but do not distinguish red.

In addition to the evolutionary level of the group, the development of vision and its features depend on the environmental situation and the lifestyle of specific species. At the permanent inhabitants of the caves, where the sunlight does not penetrate, the eyes can be completely or partially reduced, as, for example, at the blind beetles of bugs, proteis among amphibians, etc.

The ability to distinguish between color largely depends on whether the spectral composition of the radiation exists or is active. Most mammals leading origin from the ancestors with twilight and night activity are poorly distinguished by colors and see everything in a black and white image (doggy, cat, hamsters, etc.). The same vision is characteristic of night birds (owls, goatoes). Daytime birds have well-developed color vision.

Life during twilight lighting often leads to eye hypertrophy. Huge eyes capable of catching insignificant lobes of light, are peculiar to the leading night lifestyle Lemraram, Laurie monkeys, long adopts, owls, etc.

Animals are oriented with the help of vision during long-range flights and migrations. Birds, for example, with striking accuracy choose the flight direction, overcoming sometimes many thousands of kilometers from the nests to the places of wintering.

It has been proven that with such distant flights, the birds at least partially focus on the sun and the stars, i.e., astronomical light sources. With a forced deviation from the course, they are capable of navigation, i.e. to change the orientation to get to the desired point of the Earth. In case of incomplete cloud, the orientation is preserved if it is visible, at least part of the sky. In a solid fog, the birds do not fly or, if he caresses them on the way, continue to fly blindly and are often knocked down from the course. The ability of birds to navigation has been proven by many experiments.

Birds sitting in cells in the state of pre-configuration concern are always focused towards wintering, if it can observe the position of the sun or stars. For example, when lentils transported from the coast of the Baltic Sea to Khabarovsk, they changed their orientation in cells with southeastern south-western. Wintering these birds in India. Thus, they are able to properly choose the direction of flight to wintering from anywhere in the ground. In the afternoon of birds, not only the position of the Sun, but also the displacement of it in connection with the breadth of the terrain and the time of day. Experiments in the planetarium showed that the orientation of birds in cells changes, if you change the picture of the starry sky in front of them in accordance with the direction of the alleged flight.

Bird navigation ability congenital. It is not purchased at the expense of life experience, but is created by natural selection as an instinct system. The exact mechanisms of such orientation are still poorly studied. The hypothesis of bird orientation in flights on astronomical light sources is currently supported by the materials of experiments and observations.

The ability to such an orientation is characteristic of other groups of animals. Among the insects, it is especially developed at bees. Bees who found nectar transmit other information about where to fly for a bribe using the position of the Sun as a landmark. The explosion bee, which opened the source of the feed, returns to the hive and starts the dance on honeycombs, making rapid turns. At the same time, it describes the figure in the form of the eight, the transverse axis is tilted in relation to the vertical. The angle of inclination corresponds to the corner between the directions in the sun and to the source of the feed. When the medical complex is very abundant, the scouts are very excited and can dance for a long time, for many hours, pointing to the collectors to nectar. During their dance, the angle of the eight gradually shifts in accordance with the movement of the Sun in the sky, although the bees in the dark ule and see it. If the sun is hidden behind the clouds, the bees are focused on the polarized light of the free sector of the sky. The plane of the polarization of light depends on the position of the sun.

(according to N. Green et al., 1993)

Adaptation	Examples
Reducing water loss
The leaves are turned into needles or spikes. Ustwithic leaves rolled into a cylinder thick wax cuticle thick stem with a big ratio of volume to surface Acids elongated loop Gennet in kidney fabric rolling to high temperatures due to reduction of sweating or transpiration animals hide in nonorah breathing openings covered with valves	Cactaceae, Euphorbieae (Rush), Coniferous Trees Pinus, Ammophila Ammophila Most Xerophyte Leaves, Insects Cactaceae, Euphorbiaceae ("Succulents") Many Alpine Plants Fouguieria Splendens Crassulaceae (Tolsthenskaya) C-4 - Plants, such as Zea Mays Insects, Birds and Some Reptiles Desert mammals, such as camel, desert rat Many deserted plants, camels Many small desert mammals, such as a desert rat Many insects
Increase water absorption
Extensive surface root system and deep penetrating roots long roots break through the moves to water	Some Cactaceae, such as Opuntia and Euphorbieae Many Alpine Plants, such as Edelweiss (Leontopodium Alpinum) Termites
Water stocks
In the mucous cells and in the cell walls in specialized bladder in the form of fat (water - oxidation product)	Cactaceae and Euphorbieae deserted frog desert rat
Physiological resistance to water loss
With visible dehydration, the viability of the loss of a significant part of the body mass and its rapid restoration in the presence of available water	Some epiphythic ferns and frames, many mugh-shaped and lichens, Sagech Sagech, Physoides Lumbricus Terrestris (loses up to 70% of the mass), camel (loses up to 30%)

Table ended. 4.9.

Temperature joint action

And humidity

Consideration of individual environmental factors - this is not the ultimate goal of environmental research, but a way to approach complex environmental issues, give a comparative assessment of importance various factorsacting in conjunction in real ecosystems.

Temperature and humidity are leading climatic factors and are closely interrelated (Fig. 4.19).

Fig. 4.19. Effect of temperature on relative humidity

air (on B. Nebel, 1993)

With the unchanged amount of water in the air, the relative humidity increases when the temperature drops. If the air is cooled to a temperature below the water saturation (100%), condensation occurs and precipitates fall. When heated, its relative humidity falls. The combination of temperature and humidity often plays a decisive role in the distribution of vegetation and animals. The interaction of temperature and humidity depends not only on the relative, but also from their absolute value. For example, the temperature has a more pronounced effect on organisms in humidity conditions close to critical, i.e., if the humidity is very large or very small. Humidity also plays a more critical role at a temperature close to the limit values. From here the same types of organisms in various geographic areas prefer different habitats. So, in regulation premises Installed by V. V. Alekhin (1951) for vegetation, widespread species in the south grow on the northern slopes, and in the north are found only on the southern (Fig. 4.20).

Fig. 4.20. Scheme of the rule of prevention (according to V. V. Alekhina, 1951):

1 - a northern view that lives on placaries, in the south, turning on the slopes of the northern exposition and in the beam; 2 - South View, in the north founding on the most heated slopes of the southern exposition

For animals identified principles having change(Y. Bay Bienko, 1961) and principle shift Yarusov (M. S. Gilyarov, 1970), where the mesophilic species in the center of the range, in the north they choose more dry, and in the south - more wet places or move from a terrestrial lifestyle to underground, like many phytophage insects. The weaker the influence of the climate in specific habitats, which chooses the form, the greater their ability to dwell in different climatic conditions. The species chooses a combination of factors most relevant to its environmental valence, by changing habitats, and thus overcomes the climatic borders.

The interrelation of temperature and humidity well reflects Kli-Madiagram, compiled by walter-Gossen method, At which, at certain scales, the annual temperature of the air temperature with precipitation is compared (Fig. 4.21).

Fig. 4.21. Climadiagram on Walter-Gossen for Odessa

(in the city of Walter, 1968):

a - height above sea level; b - the number of years of observation of the temperature (first digit) and precipitation (second digit); in - average annual temperature; G is the average annual precipitation amount in mm: d - the average daily minimum of the coldest month; e is an absolute minimum; Well - the average daily maximum of the warmest month; s - absolute maximum; and - curve of middle-month temperatures; k - curve of middle monthly precipitation (ratio of 10 ° \u003d 20 mm); l is the same (ratio of 10 ° \u003d 30 mm); m - arid period; n - half-handed period; o - wet season; P - months with an average daily minimum temperature below 0 ° C; P-months with an absolute minimum temperature below 0 ° C, C - frosting period. On the abscissa axis - months

Climadiagram can be built for individual years, and placing consistently and continuously one after another, get climatogram. On climatograms, it is easily traced extremely dry or extremely cold years, which is very useful for determining the suitability of temperature and humidity combinations in the areas of the intended introduction of plants or fishing wild animals.

Atmosphere

As it was already noted earlier, our planet Earth differs from other planets by the presence of an air shell, atmosphere, atmospheric air. Atmospheric air - a mixture different gases. In its composition 78.08% of nitrogen, 20.9% oxygen, 0.93% of argon, 0.03% carbon dioxide, other gases (helium, methane, neon, xenon, rodon, etc.) about 0.01%.

The value of atmospheric air for living organisms is huge and varied. This is a source of oxygen for breathing and carbon dioxide for photosynthesis. It protects live organisms from harmful cosmic radiation, contributes to the preservation of heat on Earth.

The atmosphere is an important part of the ecosphere with which it is connected by biogeochemical cycles, including gaseous components. These are such as carbon, nitrogen, oxygen and water cycle. The physical properties of the atmosphere are of great importance. So, the air has only a minor resistance to movement and cannot serve as a support for ground organisms, which has directly affected their structure. At the same time, some animal groups began to use flight as a way of movement. It should be especially noted that in the atmosphere there is constantly circulation of air masses, the energy of which supplies the sun (Fig. 4.22).

Fig. 4.22. Simplified general circulation scheme

air masses atmosphere:

1 – warm air; 2 - cooled air; 3 - high pressure zones; CE - Passats; SD - dominant southwestern winds; GH - Polar Northeastern Winds

The result of circulation is the redistribution of water vapor, since the atmosphere captures them in one place (where water evaporates), transfers and gives in another place (where precipitation falls). If gases are coming into the atmosphere, including pollutants, such as sulfur dioxide in industrial areas, then the atmospheric circulation system will redistribute them and they will fall out in other places dissolved in rainwater (Fig. 4.23).

The wind, interacting with other environmental factors, can affect the development of vegetation, primarily on trees growing in open places. This usually leads to a delay in their growth and curvature from the windward side.

The wind plays an important role in spreading disputes, seeds, etc., expanding the possibilities of propagation of fixed organisms - plants, fungi and some bacteria. The wind can affect the migration of flying animals.

Fig. 4.23. Hydrological cycle and water accumulation

(according to E. A. Kriksunov et al., 1995)

Another feature of the atmosphere is its pressure that decreases with a height. The evolution of living organisms on our planet occurred at atmospheric pressure of a 760 mm mercury pillar at sea level, and it is considered "normal". With an increase in height, for example, when climbing people in the mountains, the state may occur from insufficient blood saturation of oxygen hypoxia or anoxia. It occurs due to the fact that with an increase in height above sea level, the partial pressure of oxygen, as well as other gases contained in atmospheric air, falls. At an altitude of 5450 m atmospheric pressure is two times less than at sea level. And although the air contains as much percent of oxygen here, the concentration of it per unit volume is twice as smaller.

In these conditions, transpiration increases in these conditions, which required adaptation to maintain water, such as many alpine plants.

Topography

Topography (relief) refers to the orographic factors and is closely related to other abiotic factors, although not belonging to such direct environmental factors as light, heat, water and soil. The main topographic (orographic) factor is height. The average temperature decreases with a height, the daily temperature drop increases, the amount of precipitation increases, the wind speed and the radiation intensity increase, the atmospheric pressure and the concentration of gases increase. Thus, increasing the level of terrain for every 100 m is accompanied by a decrease in air temperature by about 0.6 ° C.

Depending on the values \u200b\u200bof the forms, topography or relief are divided into several orders of magnitude: macrorelide (mountains, intermountain depressions, lowlands), mesorland (hills, ravines, ridges, karst funnels, steppe "saucer" and other) and microrelief(small soors, irregularities, priority increases, etc.), all this affects plants and animals. As a result, the usual phenomenon was vertical zonality (Fig. 4.24).

Fig. 4.24. Scheme showing matching between sequential

vertical and horizontal vegetable zones:

1 - tropical, zone (rainforest zone); 2 - moderate zone (deciduous zone and coniferous forests); 3 - Alpine zone (zone of grassy vegetation, moss and lichens); 4 - Polar zone (zone of snow and ice)

Mountain chains can serve as climate barriers. The wet air is cooled, climbing above the mountains, which leads to the loss of a large amount of precipitation on the winding slopes.

On the leeward side of the mountain range, the so-called "rain shadow" is formed, the air here is landed, there is less precipitation, desert conditions are created, since the air, dropping, is heated and absorbed moisture from the soil.

This affects living organisms. For most vertebrates, the upper border of life is about 6.0 km. A decrease in pressure with a height entails a decrease in the provision of oxygen and dehydration of animals by increasing the respiratory frequency. Several more enduring arthropods (chipstocks, mites, spiders), which can occur in glaciers, above the border of vegetation. For high-mountain plants is characterized by squat growth. In all the highlightest areas of the globe, low-spirited shrubs and shrubs predominate (Fig. 4.25), pillow-shaped and sockets of perennial herbs, twisted cereals and sources, mosses and lichen.

Fig. 4.25. Juniper Turkestan - on the slopes of the ridge

Tereki-Alatau (by IG Serebryakov, 1955):

A - a tree shape (meadow-forest belt, 2900 m above sea level); B - Stlunnik (subalpic belt, 3200 m above sea level)

A characteristic morphological feature of many high-mountainous squat plants, such as shrubs and shrubs, is a significant predominance of underground mass compared to the above-ground.

The lowestness of high-altitude plants are associated with adaptation to low temperatures and with a forming effect of radiation, a rich in a shortwall part of the spectrum that slows down growth processes. In the anatomical structure of high-altitude plants there are a number of features that contribute to protection against excess radiation are associated with the nature of the water regime and metabolism in highlands: thickening of coating fabrics that give resistance to strong winds, etc. In plants living on the rocks, changes are observed In the direction of xeromorphosis: the size of the cells decreases and the density of tissues increases, the number of alloites per unit surface of the sheet increases, their dimensions are reduced. At the species living near melt water or other sources of moisturizing, the leaves are larger and xeromorphic features are expressed weaker.

Low temperatures and strong illumination contribute to the formation of large quantities of Anthocian, hence deep, saturated colors colorful colors. The combination of small leaves with a small growth and large bright flowers is a characteristic feature of many alpine plants.

Feature Physiology and biochemistry of high-altitude plants - an increase in the intensity of redox processes, an increase in the activity of the enzymes participating in them (catalase, peroxidase, etc.), lower than those of the plain plants, the temperature optimis of their work.

The respiration of high-altitude plants is resistant to adverse effects, as a rule, an increase in breathing is observed, and therefore an increase in energy released during the decay of complex compounds. According to modern ideas, it is one of the physiological bases of plant adaptability to extreme conditions.

When picked up in the mountains, the seasonal development of plants is changing. So, in the spring, rising into the mountains, you can see the development of the same species in the following sequence: in the lowland belt - bloom, on average - bootonization, even higher - the beginning of the growing season and, finally, only the appearance after melting of snow. In the fall, when lifting in the mountains, we observe the accelerated offensive of autumn fenofam: coloring of foliage, leaf fall, dying the above-ground parts. Clearly traced a reduction in the plants of the growing season.

Along with the height above sea level, the exposure and steepness of the slopes are of great importance for living organisms.

In the northern hemisphere, the slopes of the mountains addressed to the south receive more sunlight, the intensity of light and the temperature here is higher than at the bottom of the valley and on the slopes of the northern exposure. In the southern hemisphere there is a reverse situation. This has a striking effect both on natural vegetation and the land used by man. For example, wide clefts between the rocks over the Danube in Eastern Serbia, protected from winds and experiencing the river's moisturizing effect, contributed to the preservation of many rare, relict and endemic plant species, among them "Bear Oheshnik" -Corylus Colurna, Walnut - Juglans Regia, Lilac ( Wild shape) - Syringa vulgaris, etc.

For steep slopes, fast drainage and soil wash are characteristic. Here the soil is usually low-power and more dry, with xeromorphic vegetation. When a bias exceeding 35 °, the soil is not formed, the vegetation is missing, creaps are created from loose material.

Other physical factors

To other physical factors surrounding living organisms on Earth, are mainly atmospheric electricity, fire, noise, magnetic field of land, ionizing radiation.

Atmospheric electricity Acts living organisms by means of discharges and ionization of air. For example, a desireless lightning effect is known when entering large trees, animals. There are certain patterns in the frequency of damage to the lightning of various tree species. This is associated with both the form of the crown and with the electrically conductive properties of the cortex, for example, with the speed of its wet. In the frequency of damage to lightning in the first place is spruce and pine, then birch, and the aspen is damaged significantly less. Lightning cause mechanical damage to trees (splitting of trunks, cracks), loss of large trees, thereby influence the structure of the angle, often the cause of fires. About 21% of Forest Forest Fires occurs due to lightning fault, under thunderstorms.

The role of atmospheric electric discharges It consists in the fact that during a thunderstorm of atmospheric nitrogen and oxygen synthesize nitrogen oxide, which with rainwater fall into the soil and accumulate in it from 4 to 10 kg per year per hectare in the form of nitrate and nitric acid.

The effect of ionization of air per person, animals and plants is not yet sufficiently studied. At the same time, the direct relationship between human well-being and the presence of light ions in the air is established. It is expressed that the ionization of the air serves as the material ability of some plants to "predict the weather" (a decrease in photosynthesis and respiration, closing the stomach and stopping the transpiration before the thunderstorm long before the fall in atmospheric pressure). Experimentally proven the effect of weak current on the root systems of some plants. For example, seedlings ate and pine phytomass increases by 100-120%. The possibility is established by exposure to the directional electrical field to adjust the pace of movement of substances inside the tree, and therefore, the rates of its growth.

the fire In the life of plants and animals - a rather rare, but very effective factor. Fires, for example, in forests, as already noted earlier, they may arise both naturally from lightning strikes and human fault, its activities. Therefore, fire is referred to both natural environmental factors and anthropogenic.

Serious consequences have not only riding forest fires, covering the entire ancient, but also the grassroots, which are lying in the formative vegetation, teen, the lower branches of trees, often the root system. Digest animals. In addition to damage directly from fire fires cause the deterioration of the state of the stand. Reduced growth. Weakened trees are more infected with mushrooms, such as wood rot, easily penetrating through "fire wounds", are attacked by pest insects.

Forest fires strongly change the habitat conditions of plants and animals. During a fire in coniferous forests, the temperature reaches 800-900 ° C, in the soil at a depth of 3.5 cm - up to 95 ° C, at a depth of 7cm - up to 70 "s. In dry forests, the litter and soil humus are almost completely combusting. Mineral Particles of the top layer of the soil are sintered. Rumps or vitreous crust are formed, difficult to be permeable for air, water and roots. The soil is strongly compacted. From the combustion of organic acids and release bases The soil acidity decreases sharply, in the upper horizons, the pH value often reaches the high temperature. from high temperature The upper layers of the soil are sterilized - the soil microflora dies, and in deepest - its composition changes, it is deleted by the most important groups for the livelihoods of plants. So, in the soils of coniferous forests after fires, the activities of microorganisms causing oil-acid fermentation and denitrification are dominated.

After the forest fires there is a sharp change in the conditions in plant communities (lightening, changing the temperature and other microclimate factors), especially when the destruction of the angle occurred, and leads to the fact that in the future Gary, the types of living organisms with various adaptive features that help move fire and survive on garks. So, the plants are deep underground renewal kidneys, the ability of seeds for a long time to persist in the soil and withstand high temperature, endurance to frost, strong illumination, etc.

The resumption of vegetation on Garya has its own characteristics. On the scorched places from the dispute listed by the wind, moss-pioneers appear, three to five years from the Moss, the "Fire Moss" - Funaria Hygrometrica. From higher plants, Gary Ivan-Tea (Chamaelerion Angustifolion) will quickly populate. The gradual settlement of Gare occurs both woody vegetation - willow, birch, aspen, etc. (Fig. 4.26).

Fig. 4.26. Influence of fire on the vegetation of wood "peels"

Zaralskaya Forestry (according to D. F. Fedyunin, 1953):

And - before the fire; B - after a fire; In - a year after fire; 1 - Iva; 2 - Birch, 3 - Osin

Steppe fires ("paals") can be more or less regular related to human activity, and play a significant role in the lives of living organisms, sometimes positive to regulate growth, resume, selection, and maintaining the permanent composition of grass.

Noise As a natural environmental factor for living organisms is insignificant, but can also have a significant impact with the enhancement of anthropogenic effects (noise that occurs during the operation of vehicles, equipment of industrial and household enterprises, ventilation and gas turbine installations, etc.).

The magnitude of the sound pressures is changed and normalized in decibels. The entire range of audio hearing people is laid in 150 dB. On our planet, the life of organisms takes place in the world of sounds. For example, the human hearing body is adapted to some permanent or repeating noise (auditory adaptation). A person loses performance without familiar noise. Strong noise even more adversely affects human health. In people living and working in unfavorable acoustic conditions, there are signs of changes in the functional state of the central nervous and cardiovascular systems.

Studies have proven the impact of noise and vegetable organisms. So, plants near the airfields, with which the reactive aircraft continuously start, the growth of growth is experiencing and even the disappearance of individual species is noted. In general, a number scientific work The coating effect of noise is shown (about 100 dB with a sound frequency of 31.5 to 90 thousand Hz) on tobacco plants, where the decrease in the growth intensity of the leaves, primarily in young plants. Attracts the attention of scientists and the action of rhythmic sounds on plants. Research on the study of the action of music on plants (corn, pumpkin, petunias, Queen, Calendula), held in 1969 by the American musician and singer D. Retolk, showed that the plants were relevant to the music of Bach and Indian musical melodies. Their Habius, the dry weight of the biomass was the largest compared to the control. And that is the most amazing, so this is what their stems are still stretching to the source of these sounds. At the same time, on rock music and continuous drum rhythms, green plants were resolved with a decrease in the size of the leaves and roots, a decrease in mass, and they all deviated from the sound source, as if they would like to get away from the destructive action of music (Fig. 4.27).

Fig. 4.27. View of plants after action of different music:

A - Indian melodies (R. Shankar); B - music I.-S. Bach; In - Rock Music (Experienced D. Retolk, 1969)

Plants, like people, react to music as a holistic living organism. Their sensitive "nervous" conductors, according to a number of scientists, are floemic beams, meristems and excitable cells located in different parts of the plant, associated with bioelectric processes. Probably, this fact is one of the reasons for the similarity of the reaction to music in plants, animals and humans.

Magnetic field of land. Our planet Earth has magnetic properties. The compass arrow is always focused on the magnetic meridian, pointing to one end to the north, others - south. MagnitorologistPosal that to create an observed geomagnetic field in the center of the Earth it is necessary to place a giant cylindrical magnet with a diameter of 200 km and 4000 km long. The axis of the earth magnet is located at an angle of 1.5 "to the axis of rotation of the Earth, so the magnetic poles do not coincide with geographical. Over time, the magnetic poles change their position. It is established that the northern magnetic pole per day moves along the surface of the earth by 20.5 m, or 7.5 km per year, and southern - by 30 m (11 km per year). Like any magnet, the magnetic power lines of the Earth leave one pole and through the near-earth space closes in another pole. Due to this phenomenon, a magnetosphere is created near the Earth. (Fig. 4.28).

Fig. 4.28. Meridional sections of the Earth magnetosphere:

1 - sunny wind; 2 - shock front; 3 - magnetic cavity; 4 - magnetopause; 5 - the upper boundary of the magnetospheric slit; 6 - plasma mantle; 7 - external radiation belt; 8 - internal radiation belt, or plasmosphere; 9 - neutral layer; 10 - plasma layer

It delays the streams of solar charged particles, called plasma, or solar wind, do not pass them to the surface of the planet. Sunny wind as if envelopes the Earth and shifts on the night side, pulling out, in turn, and magnetic power lines in the same direction. The deformation of magnetic power lines is related to the fact that solar plasma streams carry as it would be a "frozen" magnetic field, which interacts with the Earth's magnetosphere. For the last 600 thousand years, Paleomagnetologists recorded 12 epochs of the geomagnetic field inversion (Table 4.10).

The adaptive nature of the evolutionary process. Mechanisms for the occurrence of adaptation, classification, relative nature. Biological expediency

Certification of jobs under working conditions. Certification of jobs ¾ This is their comprehensive assessment (technological and organizational levels

Very rarely seeds germinate on the plant itself, as is observed in the so-called vivirable representatives of mangrove forests. Much more often seeds or fruits with prisoners in them, seeds completely lose touch with the parent plant and begin an independent life somewhere else.

Often, the seeds and fruits fall near the parent plant and germinate here, giving the beginning of new plants. But most often animals, wind or water carry them into new places where they are if the conditions are suitable, can germinate. This is where the resettlement occurs - the necessary stage in seed reproduction.

To denote any parts of the plant serving for the settlement, there is a very convenient term diaspora (from hurry. diaspeiro. - scatter, spreading). Such terms are also used as "Propagula", "Migrula", "Dissemidul" and "Germul", and in Russian literature, moreover, proposed by V.N. Heathrovo term "germ of settlement". In the world literature, the term "diaspora" was common, although he may be not the best. The main diasporas with whom we will deal in this section are seeds and fruits, less often - the purpose of the nozzle or, on the contrary, only parts of the fetus, very rarely a whole plant.

Initially, the diasporas of the flowering plants were individual seeds. But probably already in the early stages of evolution, this function began to move to the fruits. In modern flowering plants, diasporas are in some cases seeds (especially in primitive groups), in others - fruits. In plants with open fruits, such as leaflet, bob or box, the diaspora is the seed. But with the emergence of juicy fruits (berries, stubborn, etc.), as well as non-painful dry fruits (nuts, seeds, etc.), the diaspora becomes itself. In some families, for example, in the Lutikov family, we can observe both types of diasporas.

In a relatively very small number of flowering plants, the diaspora apply without the participation of any external agents. Such plants are called auto tickets (from Greek. autos. - I. Self choreo. - I leave, I am moving), and the very manifestory - autochoria. But the overwhelming majority of flowering plants of the diaspora spread through animals, water, wind or finally a person. This is Allohor (from Greek. allose. - Other).

Depending on the agent involved in the spread of seeds and fruits, Allohoria is divided into zoohoria (from Greek. zoon. - Animal), anthropohore (from Greek, anthropos. - man), anemokhory (from Greek. anomos. - Wind) and hydrochoria (from Greek. hydro. - Water) (Fedorov, 1980).

Authority - the spread of seeds as a result of the activity of any structures of the plant itself or under the influence of gravity. For example, the bean sash is often sharply twisted when exposing the fetus and discard the seeds. The dedication of the diaspora under the action of gravity is called barochory.

Balilyfochorea - scattering of the diaspora as a result of elastic movements of plants stems caused by wind gusts, or arising when a ka-something animal or a person touches the plant. At ballylinderhore clove diasporas serve seeds, and umbrella - mercarpics.

Anemochory - Distribution of diasporas with wind. Diasporas can spread to the thickness of the air, along the surface of the soil or water. For anemochorous plants, an increase in the diaspora sailbo is adaptively favorably. This can be achieved by reducing their size. So, seeds Pyroloideae. (Pear, one of the submenses of the heather - Ericaceae.) And the orchids are very small, dusty and can be picked up by even convective air flows in the forest. Seeds of pears and orchids contain not sufficient nutrients for normal development of the seedlings. The presence of such plants such small seeds are possible only because their seedlings of mycotrophic. Another way to increase the diaspora sailboat is the emergence of a variety of hairs, khokholkov, wings, etc. Fruits with walled growths, which are developed in a number of wood plants, in the process of falling from the tree rotate, which slows down their fall and allows them to be removed from the parent plant. The aerodynamic properties of the fetus of the dandelion and some other, complicated are such that they allow it to rise in the air under the action of wind due to the fact that the ridiculous tank hairs in the form of an umbrella is separated from a severe seed seed of a seed seed, so-called spout. Therefore, under the influence of wind, the fruit bends, and the lifting force arises. However, many other comprehensive spout do not have, and their hairs-supplied fruits are also successfully applied to the wind.

Hydrocholarium - the transfer of diasporas by water. Diasporas of hydrochorous plants have devices that increase their buoyancy and protect the embryo from water from entering water.

Zoohoria - the distribution of the diaspora animals. The most important groups of animals spreading fruits and seeds - birds, mammals and ants. The ants usually deal with single-stage diasporas or individual seeds (MIRMECOKOHORY). For diaspora MIRMECOKHORA plants, it is characterized by elaia-rich appendages that can attract ants also with their appearance and smell. The ants do not eat the seeds of the distant diasporas themselves.

Distribution of diasporas by spine animals can be divided into three types. In case of endosooocheria, animals eat entire diasporas (usually juicy) or their parts, and the seeds pass through the digestive tract, but not digested there and are output. The contents of the seed are protected from digestion with a dense shell. This can be sperm (in berries) or pericarpium inner layer (in bones, sirodaria). Seeds of some plants are not capable of germination until they pass through the digestive tract of the animal. In synosoohoria, animals use directly the contents of the seed, rich in nutrients. The diasporas of synosis plant plants are usually surrounded by a solid shell (for example, nuts), which requires effort and time. Some animals create reserves of such fruits in special places or carry them into the nests, or simply prefer to eat them away from the producing plant. Part of the diaspora animals lose or do not use that the plant resettlement provides. Epizoocheria - transfer of diaspora on the surface of animals. The diasporas may have grown, spikes and other structures, allowing to cling to the wool of mammals, bird feathers, etc. Frequency and sticky diasporas.

Under the anthropohore understand the distribution of diaphores by man. Although most of the plants of natural phytocenoses practically do not have historically established adaptations to the spread of fruits and seeds by man, the economic activity of people contributed to the expansion of the range of many species. Many plants were for the first time - partly deliberately, partly by chance - are delivered to the continents, where they have not met before. Some weeds on the development rhythm and the size of the diaspora are very close to the cultivated plants whose fields they clog. This can be viewed as an adaptation to anthropohore. As a result of improving the technique of agriculture, some of these weed plants have become very rare and deserve protection.

For some plants, heterocarcy is characterized by the ability to form on one plant of fruits of various structures. Sometimes inhomogeneous are not fruits, and parts for which the fruit is disintegrated. Heterocarpia is often accompanied by heterospermia - the dissemination of seeds produced by one plant. Heterocarpia and Goethe Rospermia can manifest itself both in the morphological and anatomical structure of fruits and seeds, as well as in the physiological features of seeds. These phenomena have an important adaptive value. Often, one part of the diaspora produced by the plant has adaptation to the separation on distant distances, and the other such devices does not have. The first often contain seeds that are capable of germination for the next year, and the second seeds that are in deeper rest and included in the soil seed bank. Heterospermia and heterocarpium are more common in annual plants (Timonin, 2009).