The meaning of the instrumental case of the last noun is the same. Genitive. Meaning and use. Non-inflected adjectives

The main meanings of the cases.

Case is syntactic by definition. The meaning of a case is traditionally called the syntactic relation (meaning) that it expresses.

All Russian cases are ambiguous. Unlike the grammatical semantics of a number, the meaning of the case is not formed by opposing different case forms (combinations of the type eat bread, eat bread, in which there is a contrastive use of two object cases in one syntactic position, are a kind of exception). The meaning of the case depends in different ways on the case inflection and is associated with the lexical meaning of nouns and with the syntactic places they occupy. When characterizing cases, the following syntactic positions are distinguished: 1) position with a word in the structure of a phrase, 2) position with a member of a sentence, while a separate position is with a link, 3) position with a sentence as a whole, 4) an autonomous position (heading, address, main member of the nominative sentence). In some cases, it is necessary to take into account the so-called internal context, that is, the spread of the noun itself in the form of a particular case.

As already noted, the meaning of a case depends on three circumstances: on the case form, on the lexical meaning of the noun, and on the syntactic position of the case. Taking into account these circumstances, cases, following E. Kurilovich, are divided into two types, grammatical (abstract) and semantic (concrete).

Grammatical (E. Kurilovich also calls them syntactic) are cases with the meaning of the object and the subject. Their specific feature is that the meaning of the case depends primarily on the syntactic place, that is, it is predetermined by the word or word form to which the case refers. When using this case, the speaker has virtually no choice. For example, word form laughs names a laughing subject. This subject in Russian is expressed twice, with the personal ending of the verb and the nominative case of the subject. The nominative case is consistent with the form of the verb, the ending of which implements the verbal subjective valency. That is why the I. n. Of any noun, regardless of the lexical semantics of the word with the word form laughs expresses the meaning of the subject of the action: man laughs, nature laughs, soul laughs. Lexeme to be like in meaning to be like Relative in its sign function, it opens up a position for the V. p. with the preposition -na. The prepositional safe form has the meaning of the object, which is formed only by the semantics of the verb and does not depend on the lexical meaning of the noun itself: be like a father, a European, a savage, a monkey, a statue etc.

Semantic cases, including prepositional combinations (they are also called adverbial), differ from grammatical cases in that their meanings are predetermined primarily by case endings (as well as prepositions) and the lexical semantics of nouns. They are less dependent on syntactic places, although they cannot occupy any syntactic position. So, the values of the forms in the forest, under the table, (early) in the morning, (late) in the evening, by lunchtime, in July, for courage, without rain, speckled, with a smile, because of a thunderstorm etc. can be defined outside the sentence structure.

Semantic cases and prepositional-case forms are heterogeneous. First of all, adverbial and characteristic forms can be distinguished among them. The first ones fall under the concept of free case proposed by G. A. Zolotova: free cases have the property of being used as headings, that is, to be syntactically independent. The latter are associated with the implementation of the attributive valency of verbs and nouns: write in small handwriting, write with errors, fur coats, elastic stockings, treetops, bird voices. In addition, cases with the meaning of a differentiated object (addressee, tool, means, purpose, etc.) are considered semantic: write to a friend, hit with a spear, feed with porridge, buy a door handle).

N. Yu. Shvedova singled out the so-called replenishing syntactic relations as a separate variety, and in connection with this, cases with replenishing meaning. Replenishing relationships arise in subordinate phrases with informatively insufficient (absolutely not used) basic words (turn into disaster, be enduring, laugh). Replenishing case together with the main word forms a combination that, from the point of view of meaning and content, "does not have the properties of separation." Complementary cases have no role in the semantic structure of a sentence.

The selection of grammatical, semantic and complementary cases reflects different methods of entering a case into the structure of a phrase and a sentence, that is, into a syntactic form.

A look at the case from the point of view of the nominative function of the sentence (in other words, the proposition) reveals an interpretive property in the cases: the cases not only name the participants in the situation, but also express the relationship between them. If the sentence Masha grabbed the dog with her hand swap cases: The dog grabbed Masha by the hand, a statement with a different meaning is formed. The meaning of the absolute majority of Russian sentences cannot be organized without the interpretive role of the cases. This role should be especially noted in the nominative case. Any actant designated by the nominative case, as it were, rises in rank (S. D. Katsnelson) and becomes a source, initiator of the situation indicated in the sentence.

The nominative case is the original case form of a word. In this form, the name of the creatures. used to name a person, object, phenomenon. I. p., Combined with the forms of the verb predicate, regularly has the meaning of the subject of the action: C the mountains are running a fast stream(Tyutchev); The girl entered the room; The night passed unnoticed; if the predicate is expressed in the form of the passive voice, the I. p. calls the object of the action: Space is studied by people; when the nominative case is used as an application, it has the meaning of a sign: Chizha slammed by the villainous trap(Krylov); in the position of the main member of the nominative sentence, I. n. calls the existing object, that is, it has an existential meaning: Night, street, lantern, pharmacy(Block); Here is a disgraced house(NS.); the name function uses a nominative call sign: Anna Karenina, in the function of address - nominative vocal: Flaunt, city of Petrov ...(Pushkin); Father, father, leave threats ...(L.); Noise, noise, obedient sail(NS.); when expressing quantitative relations, the nominative quantitative semantics is highlighted: Few words, but grief is a river, grief is a bottomless river(N. Nekrasov). The nominative case is widely represented in the nominal predicate. It is a nominative predicative: All nobles are related to each other(Block); Talent is the only news that's always new(Parsnip); You are authenticity. You are the charm, you are the inspiration itself(Parsnip), At that time there was still a fiancé Her husband(Pushkin), Zhdanov's only joy and even passion were songs(L. Tolstoy).

Genitive the case is used both after verbs and after names. The meanings and syntactic use of the genitive case are very diverse.

The adjective genitive case indicates an object in a number of cases: a) if the transitive verb has a negation with it: do not mow the grass, do not tell the truth; 6) if the action does not go to the whole object, but to a part of it (genitive part, or genitive separator): drink water, eat bread, chop wood. This case also has the meaning of absence, deprivation, removal, fear of something: He lost his parents in early childhood(H); No matter how hard we tried to avoid the fords, we could not get rid of them.(Ars); These chapters have not escaped a common fate. Gogol burned them at different times(Cor.); the meaning of desire, achievement: ... I wish (P.) glory.

The adopted genitive case indicates a number of attributive relations: belonging - father's house, sister's room; whole-to-part relationship: hotel corridor, treetop; qualitative relations (qualitative assessment): khaki peaked cap, tears of joy, a man of honor and some others.

Genitive nouns used in the comparative form of adjectives denote the subject with which something is compared: more beautiful than a flower, faster than sound, sweeter than honey, whiter than snow.

The genitive case has the meaning of the subject: the nightingale's singing, the people did not come to the meeting, the boys were not in the house, there are no windows in the corridor; the bearer of the feature: pallor of the face, beauty of the soul; replenishing: a matter of conscience, a matter of honor, measure of length, dates: April 1st, May 9th.

The modern genitive case has combined the former attributive (attributive) and partitive (quantitative) cases (cf .: coolness of the forest and cubic meter of forest, in the second case, it is already possible to replace it with the now more common ending - cubic meter of forest; in the first case, this is impossible). The modern prepositional case also represents the union of two cases: local (walk in the garden) and explanatory (talking about the garden). The delimitation of these forms was preserved again in semantics and stylistics, but not at the level of case as such.

The modern genitive case focuses on one of two possible forms - on the form with the ending -a; the ending -y in modern language is clearly declining. It is preserved as the remainder of the quantitative case when denoting the actual quantity (a lot of people), although here it is already possible to replace (a lot of people gathered in the square); saved - at and in adverbial combinations (with scared, die of hunger) and in persistent expressions like ask the pepper, the mosquito will not undermine the nose etc. Selective ending -y can also be used only when indicating the number of some real nouns, for example: a glass of tea(but more often already - a glass of tea), but only - tea taste, tea production; Wed yet: lump of sugar(option - sugar cube) and sugar production(no options); bowl of soup(option - a bowl of soup) and a plate of milk(no options). Today the form with - at should be assessed as a decreasing form, acquiring a stylistic connotation of colloquiality.

Dative case (most often after verbs, but possible after a name) is used mainly to denote a person or object to which the action is directed (dative addressee): say hello to a friend, threaten the enemy, order the troops. In addition, it can have an object value: to envy a friend. help a friend, teach literacy), subject: the boy is funny, the child is not well, my friend is not interested in my work, my sister has to go to college, there will be a thunderstorm today; definitive: a monument to Pushkin, the price for such a person is a penny.

In impersonal sentences, the dative case can name a person or object that is experiencing a state expressed by the predicate of an impersonal sentence: Sasha can't sleep(N.); But suddenly Tatyana became scared(NS.); My patient is getting worse(T.).

Accusative case is used mainly with verbs. Its main meaning is to express with transitive verbs the object to which the action is completely transferred: catch carp, clean a gun, sew a dress, make casting. In addition, the accusative case can be used to express quantity, space, distance, time. In this sense, it is used with both transitive and intransitive verbs: I sang a whole summer without a soul(Cr.); Arriving in Tiflis, I began to hear him[name] on all paths, in all places, every day, every hour(G. Usp.); walk a mile, weigh a ton, cost a penny and others. In impersonal sentences - the carrier of the procedural sign: arm aches, head just bursting; 4) replenishing: make a difference, take part.

Instrumental the case is also used in combinations with verbs and with names. The adjective instrumental case has the main meaning of the tool The guy drove geese into the city with a pre-long twigs to sell(Cr.); cut with a knife, blow with a hammer; means of action: drink tea, overeat plums; The old woman rested her hand(L.T.) ; way of action: arrive by bus, fly by plane; etc.

The instrumental adjective case can also have the meanings of place, time, space: The slightly beaten path led through the forest(A.N.T.); In the evening blue, in the moonlit evening I was once beautiful and young(Yesenin); As a boy, I heard ditties on the shores of Lake Ladoga(S. Antonov); Dubrovsky raised his head He rode along the shore of a wide lake(Pushkin).

The adjective instrumental case can have the meaning of the producer of the action: The novel "Smoke" was written by Turgenev in 1867) Can carry the meaning of the subject in passive constructions and impersonal sentences: Ranks are given by people, and people can be deceived(Griboyedov)

Finally, the instrumental predicative is highlighted, which is used to express the nominal part of a compound predicate: The first Russian scientist [M. V. Lomonosov], who revealed to us that there are sciences, he himself had to become a chemist, and a physicist, and a historian, and a politician-economist, and an orator, and, in addition, a poet(Dobrolyubov). In this case, a sign of an object named as a subject is indicated: Fetisov was a bit of an artist(Yu Nagibin)

The adopted instrumental case is used: a) for nouns with the meaning of an instrument of action: kick, vacuum cleaning; Manufacturer's actions: guarding the garden by the watchman; action content: foreign language classes; definitive: a mustache ring, a pancake cap; in relatively rare cases - with the meaning of the course of action: singing tenor; b) with the names of adjectives to indicate the area of manifestation of a feature with the meaning of a restriction: known for discoveries, strong feelings.

The instrumental case has the meaning of the object: run a plant, the causator object: be proud of your son, admire the sea, an object limiting the manifestation of a feature: weak in health, rich in friends; comparisons: It happens that a courier on a greyhound will swing a heart... (Parsnip); Longing as a passenger slides through the volumes(Parsnip); He wore overalls, changed his mustache from a ring to a mustache with a tassel(Fedin); indicative - with a verb, often based on an internal context (speak in a whisper, look with a gentle gaze).

Prepositional the case is used both with verbs and with names, but always only with a preposition.

Prepositional adjective with preposition oh (oh, oh) used to designate the object of thought, speech, i.e. object: And for a long, long time, grandfather spoke with anguish about the bitter share of the plowman (N.); It is clear that only military setbacks made the Austrian government think about internal improvements. etc.

The prepositional case can also have a time meaning: in youth, old age; concessions or conditions: In hunger, in the cold in the city of Vologda, we lived merrily, we were young(A. Yashin); indicative, including in a position with a link: A big hat covered in hoarfrost, Mustache, beard in silver(N. Nekrasov); apple tree in bloom, lined skirt; means or method of action: come by plane, come by truck, fry in oil; replenishing: participate in the war, participate in elections.

With the pretext in (in) used to indicate a place, space, an object within (or inside) of which an action is performed: Baimakova anxiously rummages in a large, forged chest, kneeling in front of him(M.G.); and also to indicate the condition, appearance. On the windowsill she had a balsam in bloom(M.G.); The river in all its beauty and grandeur, like solid glass, stretched out before them(G.).

With the pretext on used to indicate the surface where something is, happens: Every muscle plays on the arms, on the back, on the shoulders; to indicate the limit, the boundary of the spread of any action, state: Nikolai Petrovich was born in the south of Russia, like his elder brother Pavel(T.); The gates creaked here and there in the village(N. Usp.).

With the pretext at used to indicate being near, in the presence of someone: We sat down on a log left by the forest carter in the winter on the road(Prishv.); General quickly under Saburov dictated several lines of a short order(Sim.).

The prepositional adjective is used with nouns (mainly verbs) that control the prepositional case:

With the pretext O(thought, speech, report, message, etc. about something): The rumor about this incident reached Kirila Petrovich on the same day(NS.); The idea of Nikolai's marriage to a rich bride was more and more occupied by the old countess(L. T.);

With the pretext at - to indicate the location: a garden at the institute, a sister at a sanatorium;

With the pretext v- to indicate a place, space, object: live in trenches, snow storage.

Prepositions play a significant role in expressing case values. By joining nouns in various case forms, prepositions help to reveal and clarify the meanings of the cases.

So, when used with the genitive case, the prepositions around, before, because of and others express spatial relationships of objects or actions: walk around the house, get to the village, leave the table, stand at the gate.

Prepositions to, by when used with the dative case, they indicate an approach to an object, an object, to the scene of action: bend over to the table, walk in the field, drive along the road.

When used with the accusative case, the prepositions in, for, on reveal the meaning of the direction of action on an object: drive into the wall, hug the neck, look at my sister.

When used with the instrumental case, the prepositions for, over, under, with and others express spatial meanings, indicate the direction of action on an object, etc .: fly over the forest, live under the mountain, go for berries, be friends with a friend.

case data system

Chirkina I.P. Modern Russian language

in tables and diagrams. Part II. The system of parts of speech.

Names. M., 1980. S. 47–52.

Nominative

Meaning: naming of a person, object, phenomenon; the meaning is subjective and determinative.

Functions:

Main member:

subject (main function): ANDsong andpoem - this isbomb andbanner (Mayakovsky);
the nominal part of the predicate.

Secondary member:

application: Painter-barbarian with a sleepy brush he blackens the picture of a genius and the wicked one over it is meaninglessly draws his drawing (Pushkin).

Separate member:

application: In the hut, singing, the maiden spins, and, winterfriend nights, a torch bursts in front of her (Pushkin);
explanation and attachment: We, that isriders , exchanged glances, then bows (Goncharov); The next day, from early morning, the view of the boulevard, generally externalview Paris, not occupied by insurgents, has changed as if by magic (Turgenev).

Forms outside of communication with members of the proposal:

appeal: Sadit's time ! Charm of the eyes! I am pleased with your farewell beauty (Pushkin);
nominative utterance topics: Oh,youth , daring youth! Life at that time was for us, when, despising death, we divided everything in half (Pushkin).

Genitive

Genitive non-propositional.

Genitive non-propositional adjective:

Genitive attributive:
1. accessories: poems by Lermontov, brother's room;
  relationship: USSR citizen, committee member;
  whole: birch branch, machine gun barrel;
  qualitative assessment: business man, work of great value;
  age: boy, three years old, middle-aged woman;
  the bearer of the feature: the blue of the sky, the scent of pine needles;
  subject of action and state: the singing of the soloist, the bickering of the wolves.

Object genitive for verbal nouns formed from transitive verbs: execution of the plan, felling.

Genitive comparison: blacker than night, darker than clouds.

Genitive quantities, measures, dates: a glass of water, a crowd of people, the Seventh day of November.

Genitive non-sentence adjective:

Direct object:
1. on negation: didn’t read the bestseller, didn’t like autumn;
  with partial spread of the action: pour ink, drink kvass.

An indirect object after the verbs of desire, expectation, demand, achievement, deprivation, fear: desire freedom, demand an answer, achieve fame, lose respect, be afraid of the dark.

Genitive prepositional:

Object of deprivation, achievement: break away from the branch, think of a solution.

Material: build from stone, cast from bronze, build from concrete, house from brick, dress from silk.

Mode of action: run without respite, live without worries.

Measures: like to madness, funny to tears.

Spaces: live near the city, stand by the well, a man from the crowd.

Time: leave in the morning, sleep until dawn, do not get sick until old age.

Causes: keep silent out of politeness, brown from tan, scar from blow, get away with annoyance.

Goals, appointments: stop to rest, work to win, study for knowledge, flu medicine, folder for papers.

Refunds: come instead of a friend, work instead of a secretary.

Comparisons: watch like a pendant, brooch like a butterfly.

Dative

The dative is sentenceless.

Dative unpretentious adverb:

Indirect object (denotes a person or object, "addressee"): Serve the Motherland, help a friend, give to a friend.
The subject of the state (in impersonal sentences): It is both hard and sad for the heart, and there is nothing to help it (Gogol).

Dative non-sentence noun:

Indirect Object: a monument to Gogol, a monument to heroes, the end of the business, glory to the heroes, service to the Motherland, help to a comrade.

Dative prepositional.

Indirect Object: cool off to music, heed the advice, ready for battle, hatred for the enemy.
Mode of action: work on schedule, carry out according to plan.
Places: walk through the woods, drive along the steppe, descend to the river.
Causes: skip due to illness, absence for good reason.
Goals: cover for dinner, prepare for sowing.
Restrictions: unprecedented in strength, original in color.

Accusative

Accusative non-sentence adverb:

With transitive verbs: the accusative of the direct object to which the action is directly transferred: fish, read an article, embroider a blouse, chop wood.
For intransitive verbs:
1. accusative with the meaning of the coverage of the space: drove the whole forest, walked the street, ran a kilometer;
  measures of time: live a year, wait an hour, sit all night;
  quantities and measures: repeat a thousand times, weigh a ton, cost a ruble.

Accusative prepositional.

With the meaning of the subject of speech, thought: write about life, forget about the troubles.
The structure into which the object turns: shatter into pieces, turn to stone.
Instruments of action: look through glasses, see through binoculars - approaches the meaning of the course of action.
Mode of action: huddle together, live on a scholarship.
Places: dive into the water, descend downhill.
Time: walking in the rain, quarterly report.
Measures: estimate in a ruble, the size of a house.
Causes: angry for deception, red with embarrassment, reward for valor.
Goals: hand over to installation, convenient for sowing.
Refunds: to work for a friend, to be on duty for a watchman.

Instrumental case

Creative unproposable.

Instructive non-sentence adverb:

Instruments of action: write with a pen, hit with a bayonet, influence with your authority.
The producer of the action in passive constructs: Nikita drove into the gate opened by Petrushka (L. Tolstoy).
The subject of action, states in impersonal constructions: smells like tar, blown by the wind.
Image and method of action: sing in bass, walk briskly.
Places: sail by sea, walk by forest.
Time: engage in the evenings, work at night.
Predicative - denotes a sign of an object, a person standing in the nominative case (characterizes the subject): the lighthouse keeper was an old boatswain.

Tory unspoilt accepted:

Substantive quality characteristics: bell skirt, accordion boots.
Subjective restrictions, internal content: pale face, proud of success, known for work, strong in spirit.

A good prepositional.

Instruments of action: work with a jigsaw, read with glasses; approaches the meaning of the course of action.
Mode of action: rise with difficulty, walk with effort, speak with an uplift.
Places: swim under water, alley between thickets, attach above the table.
Time: leave with dawn, an explanation before parting, an argument over dinner.
Causes: running around with errands, inaudible behind the voices.
Goals: send for materials, go shopping.
Compatibility: feast with friends, study with brother, river with tributaries.

Prepositional

Adverbial:

Explanatory: report results, think about mother, grieve over separation.
Instruments of action (close to the value of the course of action): play the accordion, type on a typewriter, ride a bike.
Mode of action: convey in words, live in abundance.
Places: live in the south, keep in a savings bank, visit the village.
Time: get up at dawn, meet in youth.
Goals: punish for educational purposes.

Substantive:

With the value of a sign, property, quality of an object in relation to another object: a table on three legs, a fur coat, a lady in pince-nez.

Each student should know their meaning and be able to inflect nouns, pronouns, etc. Generations of students compete to come up with funny and ridiculous rhymes to make it easier for themselves to remember their declension order. Yes, everyone, probably, from childhood remembers: "Ivan gave birth ..." - and so on ...

The word "begat" in this mnemonic tongue twister means the genitive case. In grammatical terms, it is not direct, but one of five. In many languages, it expresses a possessive attitude, and also performs other functions. It is easy to recognize it, you need to put the question "who?" To the noun, pronoun, etc. in this case form. or "what?" with the auxiliary word "no", and if it does not change, then it means - this is the genitive case. For example:

a) "what is not?" - suns, conversations, songs;

b) "there is no one?" - uncles, mothers, dogs.

The prepositions "u", "to", "from", "from", "s", "about", "around", "without", "for" are used with the genitive case form. For example: near the hut, from the house, around the gazebo. Plural genitive is no exception. For example: near houses, from answers, around plots.

The adopted genitive case in the following meanings is used without prepositions:

The adjective genitive case means:

Direct object if the verb governing the verb form is negative. For example: does not like flowers, does not take his eyes off the picture.
If not the whole object is exposed to the action of the governing verb, but only a part of it. For example: pour (a glass) of milk, eat (a crust) of bread.
After a series of governing verbs. For example: being successful, waiting for a promotion, asking for forgiveness.
After those verbs that mean removal, deprivation, fear and the like. For example: losing a shelter.

Often its genitive word forms are mistakenly replaced with another:

Accusative with the preposition "for". For example: Pushkin and Lermontov are singers for freedom, instead of singers of freedom.
Accusative with the preposition "on". For example: Good nutrition is important not only for the sick person, but for the sick person.
Constructive with the preposition "s". For example: Emotions are inseparable from feelings, instead - from feelings.
Prepositional with the preposition "on". Young people view life in a material position, instead of a material position.
Genitive with a preposition instead of a genitive without a preposition. For example: The public condemned looting and killing against civilians, instead of looting and killing civilians.

Incorrect use of cases is considered rude. To be known as a competent and intelligent speaker, you need to learn the rules of declension.

The six case forms express different case meanings. For example, R. case forms can express the relationship of belonging (a student's book), the relationship of the whole and the part (the roof of the garage), subjective relationships (performances of the artist), etc.

Each case is polysemantic, and each case forms its own system of "meanings, although the meanings in different cases may converge.

It is possible to single out the general and particular meanings of the cases. The general meanings are as follows: subjective, objective, attributive and adverbial. '

Forms of direct or indirect cases, denoting the subject of action, have a subjective meaning. The grammatical subject can coincide with the logical one, when the subject denotes an actor, an acting object (I. case): Leaning, Tatyana writes, And all Eugene is on her mind (P.). The subject may not be grammatical, but logical: Meanwhile, Onegin's appearance at the Larins made a great impression on everyone (P.).

Objective-related forms of indirect cases, expressing the meaning of an object, to which the action is directly or indirectly directed or which participates in the action: We tore apart the black clouds ... (L.-Kum.) (The action is directed to the object); What is written with a pen cannot be cut out with an ax (Poel.) (The action is carried out with the help of an object).

Indirect cases expressing the attribute of the object have a definitive meaning: But having received Tanya's message, Onegin was vividly touched by (P.) (in this case, the definitive meaning is inextricably linked with the subjective one); And, marching importantly, in decorous calm, The horse is led by the bridle by a peasant, In big boots, in a sheepskin fur coat ... (N.)

Forms of indirect cases, expressing the relation of an object called a noun, to time, to the place of action, to its cause, purpose, etc. are of circumstantial significance: In the forest, a woodcutter's ax was heard ... (N.) (meaning of the scene).

Common meanings combine a wide variety of particular meanings, and the meanings are unequal: there are main, typical for a given case, and there are secondary, peripheral ones.

The meaning of the case forms is influenced by several factors, and above all the lexical meanings of the case forms and the words on which they depend. '' Compare: I love spring

(object value); He came every spring (meaning of the circumstance of time). The meanings of the form B. "case are different, since in these sentences it depends on verbs with different meanings / Went field (adverbial, spatial meaning); Went early in the morning (adverbial time), i.e." e . the meaning of the TV case form is influenced by the meaning of the dependent case forms themselves. "

Prepositions, used together with nouns, help to express various case meanings, concretize them and enrich them. For example, with the P / case forms, numerous prepositions are used that help to clarify spatial relations (from the city, to the city, around the city, etc.) steppe, in the steppe, etc. * d.). With the help of prepositions, the meanings of the same case form are distinguished (to live with a sister - to live for a sister).

Nominative case meanings. The main meaning of the nominative case is subjective. For example: Raisky came home to quickly explain with Vera (Gonch.).

In the meaning of a predicative feature, the forms of I. "the cases are part of the predicate." For example: You are a guest, I am the host.

Forms I. of the case have a definitive meaning when they act as an application. 'For example: And from a nearby settlement, Mature young ladies idol, Uyezd mothers joy, A company commander (P.) arrived.

With comparative conjunctions, the forms of I. "cases have the meaning of the subject of comparison. For example: Dika, sad, silent, Like a forest doe, fearful, She seemed like a stranger in her family (P.). Or they mean" in quality. "For example: Rich, good-looking, Lensky was accepted everywhere as a groom (P.).

In the role of addressing I. *, the case has a vocative meaning. For example: Will you take me for reconnaissance, uncle? (Cat.)

In coherent speech, a nominative representation is also highlighted, which names a person or object in order to evoke an idea about it. For example: Moscow! How much in this sound has merged for the Russian heart (P.).

Genitive meanings. The main meanings of the genitive case are object, attributive and subjective; secondary meanings are adverbial.

A genitive adjective can express object relations. The direct object of the R. case form is expressed when the action is directed not at the entire object, but at a part of it (to buy bread) and when there is a negation in the verb (not to see the meaning). The meaning of the object is also of the R. case forms with the verbs: wait, ask, seek, desire, demand, fear, fear, fear, lose (wish for success, etc.).

Object relations can also be expressed by R. noun, in such cases the main word is a verbal noun (logging): The genitive in words with the meaning of measure, quantity denotes the subject of counting (a glass of water, a basket of berries, two meters). "In the forms of the comparative degree P case denotes the object of comparison (above the roof, more vigilantly than an eagle).

The genitive adopted can have a definitive meaning (the performance of the artist; whose performance?) Of the bearer of the attribute, that is, a person, an object with a quality, a property that is called by the control name (loyalty to a friend).

The genitive case can have the meaning of belonging (Yakimov's apartment), part of the whole (the wall of the house), the meaning of a qualitative assessment in combination with an agreed word (a tall person) or without such a word (a person of his word); indicates age (a person of advanced years), material (cabinet of Karelian birch). Close to these meanings is the expression of belonging of the named person to any collective, enterprise, other person (factory workers, a friend of a writer, a member of the Komsomol).

The circumstantial meanings of the R. case are the meanings of place, cause, purpose, etc. In this meaning, the R. case is often used with verbs and has various prepositions with it (to stop near the house, to shiver from the cold). Gp. the use of verbal nouns (stopping near the house, shivering from the cold), where, along with the adverbial meaning, the attributive is also manifested. The same can be said about non-verbal nouns (house by the road).

Dative case meanings. The main meanings of the dative case are objective and subjective; secondary - determinants.

The dative adjective and adjective in the meaning of an object indicates a person or object to which the action is directed (write to a friend, letter to a friend). Such a meaning can be combined with a qualifying one (a hymn to labor). Wed "prepositional case forms: address to the rector, appeal to the people.

In impersonal constructions D. "case can denote a subject: Vasily is bored; Grandfather is unwell.

A case with prepositions has definitive meaning relatively rarely (exam in physics, lesson in literature).

Accusative meanings. The main meaning of the accusative case is objective. The accusative non-propositional designates an object to which the action directly passes (to love parents, to read a book, to take a pen).

Secondary meanings of the accusative case - subjective (in impersonal constructions) Masha is drawn to tell about it; The patient shivers) and circumstantial (It was a kilometer; I came to the village every summer. ■ + - Circumstance of the measure). Adverbial meanings are usually found in nouns with the lexical meaning of time, place, etc .; prepositional-case forms with prepositions в, na (went to the village, left for Ukraine, said about it on Friday, etc.) are especially frequent in this meaning. goals (to come on vacation), defining meanings (striped dress, checkered shirt, etc.).

Instrumental case meanings. The main meanings of the instrumental case are object, subjective and the meaning of a predicative sign. As the name of the case shows, in the object sense, it indicates the object with which the action is performed (write with a pencil, hack with an ax). "This is an adverbial case. In addition, the nominal T. case has definitive shades (cutting with an ax). With the preposition с the instrumental case has the meaning of compatibility (Misha with Vasya).

With adjectives T., the case has a clarifying meaning (tall, strong in spirit): With verbs TV, the case specifies, limits the scope of the action (go in for sports, lead a circle).

The instrumental case is also used in the forms of the comparative degree (above the floor, later in the year).

Subjective meaning T: case has in passive constructions (made by a friend, performed by an artist).

In the meaning of the predicative attribute T. "the case is primarily in the composition of the predicate (He became a teacher).

Circumstantial meanings are secondary, they are characteristic of both non-propositional forms and, especially, forms with pretexts for, in front of, above, under, etc. (walking in the field, speaking in a whisper, sitting at a table, stopping in front of a house, etc.). Such constructions can be adverbial and adjective (stop behind the house):

Prepositional meanings. The prepositional case has two main meanings: object and adverbial. With the objective meaning of P., the case indicates the object of speech, thought, feeling (talking about a brother, "Song of Haiyavat"): In this case, the forms of P. ‘case depend on a verb or a verbal noun and are used with the preposition o.

In the adverbial meaning of P., the case with prepositions in and on indicates the place of action (to reap in the forest, gathered in a clearing). With the preposition at, it indicates an object near which something (someone) is (to be listed at the headquarters, to live at the school). The form of P. of the case may also depend on the name (garden in the suburbs, a site at a school, an apartment on the outskirts), acquiring a definitive meaning.

Only P. applied (coat with fur, bound book) can have a definitive meaning. The prepositional case can also have the meaning of a state (to lie in oblivion, to be in a bad state, to be in a bad mood).

In a number of cases, the meaning of the case can be determined only in a broader context. "For example, the sentence: Ivanov's punishment seemed too harsh to everyone - it can be understood in two ways: 1) Ivanov punished someone (subjective meaning); 2) someone punished Ivanov (objective To avoid ambiguity, you need to rebuild this sentence as follows: 1) Punishment by Ivanov of the student ... 2) Punishment by the teacher of Ivanov ...

The term case, like the names of most cases, is a tracing-paper from Greek and Latin - Old Greek. rf? uyt (fall), lat. casus from cadere (to fall). There are direct cases (nominative and sometimes also accusative) and indirect cases (others). This terminology is associated with the ancient concept of "declinatio" as "deviations", "deviations" from the correct, "direct" form of the word, and was supported by associations with dice (where with each throw one or another side falls out - in in this case, one "direct" and several "indirect").

Due to the historical relationship of Indo-European languages, the case system of the Russian language has a number of similarities with the case system of other Indo-European languages (see: Table 1). But against the background of this community, their originality clearly stands out, which manifests itself both in the number of cases and in the range of meanings of the use of each case.

Table 1. Correspondence of Russian cases to cases in world languages

Latin name	Russian case name	Characterizing questions		Examples of languages in which it is used
Nominative	Nominative		Subject	Almost all agglutinating and inflectional languages
	Genitive	Whom? What?	Affiliation, composition, participation, origin, definition, denial	Arabic, Slavic, Finnish, Georgian, German, (Ancient) Greek, Icelandic, Irish, Latin, Lithuanian, Sanskrit, Turkic languages, Japanese
Possessive	Possessive		Affiliation only	Can be separated from genitive in: English, Quechua, Altai and Finno-Ugric languages
	Dative	To whom? What?	Transmission object, speech addressee, experimenter	From the early Indo-European languages survived in the Balto-Slavic, Romance and Germanic languages; Finno-Ugric languages, Japanese
Accusative	Accusative	Whom? What?	Action object	Almost all agglutinating languages, most inflectional
	Nominative		Subject of action	Ergative languages
Absolute	Nominative	Who? Whom? What?	Action or state object
Affective	Dative	Who? To whom?	A subject who perceives something or experiences any feelings
Comitative or Social		Secondary actors	Finnish, Basque
Instrumentalis	Instrumental case		The instrument of action; sometimes the subject of action	Mongolian
Partitive	Partial case		The action moves only to a part of the object
	Vocal case	Appeal
	Which? How?	Being in any state
Translative	Into what? Who / what has become?	Change of state or location
	Local case	Where? What is it?	Location	Finno-Ugric, Turkic, Baltic languages, Etruscan, Ukrainian
	Where? About what?	Location (external) location
	Where? What is it?	Location (internal) location
	Directive case	Where to? For what?	The end point of the trajectory, the object that will be affected by the action	Finno-Ugric, Turkic languages
	There is no exact analogue	Where to? Into what?	End (internal) point of action	Finno-Ugric languages
	Original	Where? Why? From what?	Starting point of action	Finno-Ugric languages, Turkic, ancient Indo-European languages
	There is no exact analogue	From (inside) what?	Initial (internal) point of action	Finno-Ugric languages
Procrastinating	There is no exact analogue	Along what?	Extended objects only	Mongolian
Terminative	There is no exact analogue	To the level of what? (where?)	Specifying Height / Depth	Mongolian

Case is a form of a name that expresses its relationship to other words in a sentence or phrase. For example: unlock a door with a key, a key from a door, a bunch of keys, acquire keys - the four case forms of the word key express different attitudes towards the words unlock, from the door, bunch, acquire. These relationships can be very diverse, and therefore the form of each case can have several meanings.

The modern school grammatical tradition identifies 6 cases.

Schoolchildren memorize their order with the help of funny couplets: “Ivan (Irina) gave birth to a girl, ordered to drag the diaper”; "Ivan, Roman, Give Your Pipe a Smoke"; "The name of the child was given, Vinnie the Toptyzhka was nicknamed"; "Ivan Chopped Firewood, Brought to Drag the Saw"; "Ivan Chopped Firewood, Varvara Stove Stove"; “And Daria gave birth to Vanka Tolstoy, Puzaty”; "Ivan Romanov Gave Vita a Notebook to Hold"; "Ivan, Darling, Give Vanyusha Tabak a Smell"; "Ivan gave birth to a girl Valya Plump, Puzatenkaya" [Wikipedia - e-mail. Dan.].

Modern European terminology associated with declension is a fragment of the ancient one. The nominative (onomastikz, nominativus) as the "initial" case was called orthz - direct, unlike others, deviated, inclined (klisis, declinatio - declension), which is why they were considered oblique, indirect (plagiai, ptfseis). Parent (geniks, genetivus - generic) got its name from the fact that it sometimes denoted a genus, affiliation, origin. The dative (dotikз, dativus) by its name expressed one of its functions (compare the use of the dative case with the verb give - to give). The term of Greek grammar, corresponding to the accusative case (aitiatikз), was very narrowly translated into Latin - accuativus (literally: accusative), or rather it would be causativus. "We would have been more suitable for the name of the subject case." The instrumental (instrumentalis - instrumental) case was introduced into Russian grammar by Lavrentiy Zizaniy (Grammar of Slovenska, 1596). Melety Smotritsky, in his "Grammar" (1619), supplemented the Russian case terminology with a legendary case (compare to speak - to say something), which was later renamed by Lomonosov as a prefix [Vinogradov, 1972; 144], due to the exclusive use of this case only with prepositions. For the Old Russian and Old Slavonic languages, this case is called "local" (according to one of the main meanings); it was originally used without a preposition, like all other indirect cases: Novgorod "b meant" in Novgorod ".

However, there is an opinion that in the Russian language, in addition to these six cases, it is possible to distinguish several more word forms-cases that are not mentioned when teaching at school (see: Table 1), but can be used by the teacher as additional language material. Such cases include: vocative, quantitative-separative, local and original cases.

Vocative forms of the vocative case (vocative) are used when referring to a person (im. Case: Anya - vocative: An!) (An, will you go home?). However, at present, instead of the extinct old vocative case, the so-called new vocative case is used, which is formed by truncating the final vowel of the noun [On the vocative case .. - el. Dan.]. The vocative case was considered the seventh Russian case in grammars published before 1918 (in closely related Belarusian and Ukrainian languages, it stands out as the 7th case to this day). Words in the form of this archaic vocative case can be found in old literature, especially church literature (for example, the words "father", "God", "Lord", "elder", which are archaisms in modern Russian).

The vocal case does not express the relationship between words and is necessary to express the dependence of words in a sentence: (who?) Ivan gave birth to (whom?) A girl

The noun "Ivan" is used in the form of the nominative case, "girl" - in the form of the accusative. From here we understand that it was Ivan who gave birth to the girl, and not vice versa.

The third vocative case that existed in the Russian language was preserved in the words "grandfather", "docha", etc.

However, some linguists interpret these forms not as the vocative case, but as the vocative form, since only some residual forms of the ancient vocative case have survived in the modern language, while not all names have a vocative form. This is due to the definition of the case, which should express syntactic relations. The appeals, meanwhile, are not members of the sentence and do not participate in syntactic relations.

The quantitative-separative (partitive, or second genitive) case was used when using a noun meaning whole in relation to some part also mentioned. We can hear this case in two equivalent forms of some phrases: for example, "head of garlic", but also "head of garlic"; it is especially noticeable in relation to uncountable nouns: sugar, sand (not to be confused with the dative), etc. There is an opinion that this case is one of two that can be a direct complement to a verb. Moreover, verbs can have as a direct object both only a noun in the partitive and in the accusative. (This often depends on the animate and countable noun.)

The local (locative, or second prepositional) case, in which the noun is placed, means the place of action, for example: "to stand in the snow" (but the prepositional case: "to think about snow").

The original (ablative) case, in which the noun is put, means the place of the beginning of the movement, for example: “came out in the forest” (differs from the local case in stress) [Bogoroditsky 1935; 167-167, 311].

In addition to these cases, experts (for example, V. A. Uspensky [Uspensky], A. A. Zaliznyak [Zaliznyak 2002]) sometimes distinguish several more (waiting, temporary, inclusive, counting, etc.). The exact number of selected cases depends on the chosen case definition.

As a rule, to determine the case of a noun, the technique of posing a characterizing question is used. However, this principle is not always fundamental. So, for the accusative - there is not a single unique question, for the prepositional - there is no general question (the preposition in the question depends on the preposition in the sentence), for the vocative - there are no questions at all.

As you can see, the ideal principle of any grammatical category (the connection between meaning and formal features) is constantly violated when we deal with a case category. Any case has not one but several meanings. For example, the most typical for the instrumental case is "the meaning of the instrument or means by which the action is performed." But, in addition, there is an instrumental time - in the afternoon, in the evening (this is not at all the same as writing with a pen), an instrumental way and mode of action step by step, sideways; instrumental comparison - to fly an arrow, etc. Based on the meaning, several cases can be distinguished only within the instrumental case.

So, it is impossible to determine the number of cases on the basis of formal signs, since there is no uniformity among them, on the basis of meaning, it is also impossible, since there is no limit for splitting values. How many cases are there? This question was raised by Academician A.I. Sobolevsky, he wrote: “How many cases? The answer to this question is not only difficult, but outright impossible. If we take the sound form of the name as the base ... then we will have to say that some names (for example, bone - with only three different sound forms of the singular) have fewer cases than others .. and that the number of cases is indefinite. If we take the grammatical meaning as a base…. Then we will have to count a large number of cases ... Then, for example, the shape of bread in different sentences (I took bread for myself, meat is better than bread, softness is a property of bread) "will represent three cases ..." [Encyclopedia for Children, 1998; 31, 171].

According to V.V. Vinogradov, out of six cases in modern Russian, due to the richness of meanings (and partly by origin), the genitive and prepositional could be considered as a union of at least two cases in each of them [Vinogradov 1984; 204].

Consider the variety of meanings of the cases of the Russian language.

The form of the name is the original case form of the word. In this form, a noun is used for the name, name of a person, object, phenomenon. In this case, there is always a subject (as well as an appendix to it): The girl entered the room; N o w passed imperceptibly; The siskin slammed the evil one to a-z and a dn (Cr.). In the same case, the nominal part of a compound predicate can be: Grushnitsky - yunker; The chorus was a man to a good one (T.). In the nominative case, there is also the main member of a one-part nominative sentence: Here is the disgraced house and k (P.). Out of syntactic connection with a sentence in the nominative case, there is an address: Father, father, leave threats ... (L.); Noise, noisy, obedient in etrilo (P.).

Parental pad is used both after verbs and after names. The meanings and syntactic use of the genitive case are very diverse.

The proper genitive unites the meanings of a qualitative definition: a girl of rare beauty, a man of great intelligence, a mahogany table; accessories: sister's book, father's house; subject: mother's gift, Pushkin's compositions, Matrosov's brake; object: reading Mayakovsky (when reading Mayakovsky's poems; but reading Mayakovsky, that is, reading something by Mayakovsky himself is a genitive subject) [AG - 70; 287]. These meanings are possible even if there are pretexts, for example: he had a beautiful daughter, this book has a leather cover, the suitcase has a double bottom, etc.

The adjective genitive case indicates an object in a number of cases: a) if the transitive verb has a negation with it: do not cut the grass, do not tell the truth; 6) if the action does not transfer to the whole object, but to a part of it (genitive part, or genitive separative): drink water, eat bread, chop wood. This case also has the meaning of absence, deprivation, removal, fear of something: he lost his family in early childhood (Ch.); No matter how hard we tried to avoid the brods, we did not manage to get rid of them (Ars.); These chapters have not avoided a common focus. Gogol burned them at different times (Cor.); the meaning of desire, achievement: ... I wish you a word (P.); ... I want to be free, I don’t want to (Beagle).

The adopted genitive case indicates a number of attributive relations: belongings - father's house, sister's room; whole-to-part relationship: hotel corridor, treetop; relations of quality (qualitative assessment): a khaki cap, tears of joy, a man of honor and some others.

Genitive nouns used in the comparative form of adjectives denote the object with which something is compared: more beautiful than a flower, faster than sound, sweeter than honey, whiter than snow, etc.

The genitive quantitative-separative case is represented by the values of the quantity, mainly after the numerals and verbs): five years, three kilos for peas, read books, utter insolence, drink water; removal, deprivation: avoid danger, lose a place, beware of deception; achieve the goal: succeed, ask for help. These meanings are expressed with the help of prepositions, more often from, from, to, about: to leave the city, come from peasants, sew from the best material, from edge to edge, raincoat, hear from friends, get to bed, hunter to books ... Especially it is necessary to emphasize the expression of causal - target values in this case with the pretexts: with joy, with fear, with grief, (to lose weight from grief). The formal difference between the genitive quantitative-separative is in the special ending -y in some masculine nouns, which is usually not the case in the use of the genitive proper, with the most rare exceptions.

The dative pad (most often after verbs, but it is possible after the name) is used mainly to denote a person or object to which the action is directed (dative addressee): say hello to a friend, threaten the enemy , order to the troops.

In impersonal sentences, the dative case can name a person or an object that is experiencing a state expressed by the predicate of an impersonal sentence: You cannot sleep (N.); But suddenly it became scary Tata n e (P.); My bad is getting worse (T.).

Binitel nyad is used mainly with verbs. Its main meaning is to express, with transitive verbs, an object to which the action passes completely: to catch carp, clean a gun, sew a dress, make casting. In addition, the accusative case can be used to express quantity, space, distance, time. In this sense, it is used with both transitive and intransitive verbs: I sang everything without a soul for the summer (Cr.); Arriving in Tiflis, I began to hear his [name] on all roads, in all places, every day, every hour (G. Usp.); walk a mile, weigh a ton, cost a penny, etc.

T in about r and t e l n y pad is used both in combinations with verbs and with names.

The adverbial instrumental case has the main meaning of a tool or means of action: The pre-long x in about the age man drove geese into the city to sell (Kr.); The old woman propped herself up and down (L.T.), etc.

The instrumental adverb case can also have the meanings of place, time, space, image and mode of action: Klub and black smoke rushes to the clouds (Cr.); The horses, snorting, flew in and out ... (N.); The slightly beaten path led the forest (A.N.T.); - ... Well, dead! - shouted the baby b a s o m ... (N.) and others.

The adjective instrumental case can have the meaning of the producer of the action: The novel "Smoke" was written by Turgenev in 1867.

A special case of the use of the instrumental case is the so-called instrumental predicative, that is, forming (with or without a linkage) a compound predicate. It is used to express the nominal part of a compound predicate: The First Russian Scientist [M.V. Lomonosov], who revealed to us that there are sciences, he had to do it himself , and pol and t and to about-e k about m about m, and about r and to about m, and in addition also - p and and t about m (Dobrolyubov); he became an accomplished engineer; students are teachers and scientists.

Close to this is the meaning of the instrumental case, which indicates the position, position, property of a person or object, the name of which is in the accusative case with transitive verbs to call, assign, count, recognize (whom? By whom?). When the active voice is replaced by a passive one, such an instrumental one becomes an ordinary creative predicative: he was elected chairman - he was elected chairman, he is considered a leader - he is considered a leader, etc. [AG-70; 336].

The adopted instrumental case is used: a) for nouns with the meaning of an instrument of action: kick, cleaning with a vacuum cleaner; manufacturer's actions: guarding the garden by the watchman; the content of the action: classes in a foreign language; definitive: mustache ringlet, pancake cap; in relatively rare cases - with the meaning of the mode of action: singing tenor; b) with the names of adjectives to indicate the area of manifestation of a sign with the meaning of restriction: known for discoveries, strong feelings.

The prepositional pad is used both with verbs and with names, but always only with a preposition.

The adjective prepositional case with the preposition about (about, about) is used to designate the object of thought, speech: And for a long, long time, grandfather spoke about the bitter plowman with anguish (N.); It is clear that only military failures forced the Austrian government to think about internal improvements (Chern.), Etc.

With the preposition в (в), it is used to indicate a place, space, an object within (or inside) of which an action is performed: Baimakova anxiously rummages in a large, forged sunduk, kneeling in front of it (M. G.); [Ayanov] ... had a twelve-year-old daughter, who was brought up at the state expense in the institut (Gonch.); and also to indicate the condition, appearance. On her windowsill stood a balsam in color (MG); The river, in all its beauty, spreads out in front of them, like a solid glass (G.).

With the preposition not, it is used to indicate the surface where something is, what happens is: to indicate the limit, the border of the spread of any action, state: Nikolai Petrovich was born in the south of Russia, like his elder brother Pavel (T.); The gates creaked here and there (N. Usp.).

With the pretext when is used to indicate being close, in the presence of someone: We sat down on a log left by the forest carter in the winter alongside (Prishv.), General quickly ove dictated several lines of a short order (Sim.).

The prepositional adjective is used with nouns (mainly verbs) that control the prepositional case:

With the pretext about (thought, speech, report, message, etc. about something): The rumor about this about and on the same day reached Kiril Petrovich (P.) ; The idea of marrying Nicholas on a rich bride more and more occupied the old countess (L. T.);

· With the preposition pri - to indicate the place: garden pr and n s t u te, sister pr and n and to r and i;

With the preposition в - to indicate a place, space, object: life in about copax, storage in snow, etc.

The modern prepositional case is divided by some scientists into two: explanatory - about bread, about a garden, about a forest (after the verbs speak, think, reason and the like) and local (with prepositions в, на) - in the garden, in the forest, on the floor , on the vine [Vinogradov 1986; 299]. In the meaning of the local case in masculine nouns, the ending -у under stress is very common.

It should be noted that the idea of a number of researchers on the division of the genitive and prepositional cases into two has a purely scientific significance.

Due to the abundance of meanings of indirect cases, some of their meanings are expressed not only by case endings, but also by the addition of prepositions, for example: the genitive case - with prepositions expressing spatial relationships (from home, to school, from the mountains, from cities) and target (for health, for success); dative case - with prepositions expressing direction (to the father, along the roads); the accusative case - with prepositions expressing spatial relations (to the street, to the house, knee-deep) and temporal (per year, per hour); instrumental - with prepositions expressing compatibility (with a friend) and spatial relations (under water, behind gardens, between trees); The prepositional case is used in modern Russian only with prepositions (of various meanings).

Depending on which system of inflections in singular case forms. has this or that word, all nouns that change in cases are divided into three classes (three declensions): nouns of the first declension, the second declension and the third declension. The first declension is noun. husband. and Wednesday. R., to the second - n. mostly wives. R., as well as husband. and total. R., to the third - n. wives R., one word husband. R. and twelve words of the middle r. Nouns of each declension have their own paradigmatic characteristics - two particular paradigms: one uniting singular forms, and the other uniting plural forms. Differences between particular paradigms of units. hours are significant for different declensions; private paradigms pl. hours for different declensions differ only in the forms of them. and genus. n. (as well as wine. n., coinciding with the name of the item or genus. n.); inflection of dates., tv. and offer. n. pl. nouns of all three declensions are the same.

Paradigms of nouns and case inflections are characterized by the following features:

1) All case inflections simultaneously express two morphological meanings - case and number (singular or plural).

2) None of the particular paradigms consists of six (according to the number of cases) materially different forms: the paradigm of the first and second declensions in singular. and paradigms of all declensions in plural. h. have five different forms of the third paradigm. in units hours - only three different forms.

3) In the composition of each of the particular paradigms there are forms with homonymous case inflections; so, materially the inflections of them coincide. and wines. n. or genus. and wines. n. in paradigms husband. R. first floor in units hours and in paradigms of all declensions in plural; inflection of dates. and offer. p. - in the paradigm of the second floor. in units; inflections genus., dates. and offer. p. - in the paradigm of the third floor. in units h

4) The inflections of different cases in different paradigms can be homonymous.

Thus, all case forms of the three declensions in sing. and plural have a total of only fifteen different inflections (morphophonemic notation) [AG-80; 475].

Conclusion: the concept of "case" and the names of cases originate from antiquity. The case system of the Russian language has a number of common features with the case system of other Indo-European languages, but it has specific features: the number of cases, the range of meanings of the use of each case. Some researchers distinguish such word forms-cases as vocative, quantitative-separative, local and original cases. The meanings of the cases are diverse. The transfer of these meanings is entrusted to inflections, which help to navigate in the semantic variety of meanings.