Peter 1 introduction of civil script. Supplementing the alphabet in the 18th century. History in faces
At the beginning of the 18th century. In the life of Russia, radical changes were taking place, caused by the development of the productive forces and prepared by the entire previous course of historical development. The foundations of industry are being created, domestic and foreign trade is developing, a regular national army and navy is being organized, Russia's economic and cultural ties with the countries of the West and East are being strengthened. The international authority of the Russian Empire is growing.
The rapid economic and political development was accompanied by the rapid growth of national culture, science, and education. Breaking with the religious traditions of the past, the new Russian culture acquired a pronounced secular character. Public schools of various types were opened (both general and special, according to exact knowledge), accessible to people of different social status. Scientific, cultural and educational institutions were created to promote the development of Russian science and culture, the restructuring of the life of the Russian people (Library-Kunstkamera, Academy of Sciences, etc.).
The development of the exact sciences was encouraged. Russian social thought and journalism, literature and art developed fruitfully. The introduction of the January calendar and Arabic numerals was of great cultural significance.
Publishing business in the first quarter of the 18th century became widespread. Until now, it has served primarily the needs of the church. Peter I put book printing at the service of the interests of state transformation and the development of a new culture. Peter I personally supervised book printing and publishing, determined the topics of publications, supervised the translation of books and was the editor of many of them. His name is associated with the creation of a Russian printing house in Amsterdam, the founding of the St. Petersburg printing house, the introduction of civil type, the creation of the first Russian printed newspaper "Vedomosti" and much more.
In the development of Russian culture and publishing, a major role was played by the reform of the Russian alphabet, and on its basis - the reform of the press.
The press reform was carried out in 1707-1710. The essence of the reform is the replacement of the old Cyrillic alphabet with its complex graphics and the system of superscripts, which is difficult in typographic typography, with a new civil alphabet, which was based on the handwriting of the late 17th - early 18th centuries, which differed from the usual semi-standard only in the roundness of a number of letters - b, c, f, o, p, etc. Letters of such a drawing, similar in character to European fonts, were found in some engraved editions of the early 18th century, for example, on the map of the Dvina River (1702).
Such experienced people as the well-known figure in the field of book printing I.A. Musin-Pushkin, head of the first Moscow civilian printing house V.A. Kipriyanov, typeface Mikhail Efremov. Drawings of the new font were made by draftsman and draftsman Kulenbach. Peter I himself gave instructions on the destruction of superscript characters and some letters ("from", "psi", "xi", etc.), borrowed at one time from Greek writing and became unnecessary with the development of the Russian language, about changing, improving graphics individual letters.
The new alphabet was easy to learn and easy to type. She democratized reading, promoted the spread of literacy and education. Subsequently M.V. Lomonosov wrote about her:
“Under Peter the Great, not only boyars and boyars, but also letters threw off their wide fur coats and dressed in summer clothes”.
The final version of the civil alphabet was adopted in 1710. Peter I inscribed with his own hand on a copy of the civil alphabet: “Simi letters to print historical and manufactory books. And those which are underlined, those [in] the above-described books should not be used. "
Since 1708, the Cyril font has been used mainly for printing church books; for some time they continued to print textbooks, religious books, the most important publications intended for wide distribution throughout Russia, since the civil script penetrated slowly into the provinces. The Cyrillic alphabet was more familiar than the civilian script, this explains the "vitality" of the books of the old Cyrillic press.
The civil script played an important role in the creation of a new type of book. The idea for its development belonged to Peter I. According to his sketch, under the personal supervision of the military engineer Kulenbach, he made drawings that were approved by the tsar and sent to Holland for casting. The new typeface was created based on common business cursive writing. In its outline, it resembled the best Latin fonts of the Elsevirs. The typeface, made in Holland and improved by Russian masters, was finally approved in 1710. The decree on its introduction read: "To print historical and manifacture (technical. - TK) books with these letters." Church Slavonic Cyrillic was left for liturgical books, although sometimes it continued to be used for the widespread publication of legislative, political documents, decrees, and statements.
The first book, printed in civilian type, "Geometry of Slavic Land Measurement" (March 1708), is a translation of a textbook on geometry widespread in the West (circulation of 200 copies). This was followed by the book "Applications, how different compliments are written" (April 1708). It was a manual outlining the rules of behavior in society.
Books were printed in a new type to promote the spread of secular knowledge. Books and other printed materials that required widespread use, for example, numerous decrees and regulations, often continued to be printed in old letters. Books on church topics are most fully represented by the traditional gospels, menaea, prologues, six days, psalters, and hours of hours. The same craftsmen worked on their production as on secular publications. Therefore, the interpenetration of the design elements of these two groups of books is often observed, especially in the first years of the activity of secular printing houses.
The natural course of development of book publishing at the turn of the 17th-18th centuries was disrupted by radical measures aimed at restructuring society, at the formation of a new secular worldview. Book publishing in this critical period begins to develop in two directions - civil and ecclesiastical. To disseminate new ideas, a printing press was used, which produced hundreds of book titles previously known to a very limited circle of people. In the first quarter of the 18th century alone, 650 titles of secular books were published with a circulation of half a million copies. At the same time, about eleven titles were published in the church press per year, which accounted for only 14 percent of the total volume of book publishing.
The first experience of publishing books of a new type by the decision of Peter I was undertaken in the foreign printing house of J. Tessing (? -1701). In 1698, a printing house was opened in Amsterdam, in which, according to Peter's decree, it was ordered to publish "earthly and sea paintings and drawings, and all kinds of printed sheets and persons ..., mathematical, architectural and other art books." The head of the printing house was I. Kopievsky (1615-1714). Under his leadership, several books were published, printed by order of the Russian Tsar. These are "A Brief Introduction to Any History" (1699), "A Brief and Useful Guide to Arithmetic" (1699), "A Brief Collection of Leo the Peacemaker" (1700), etc. These books did not meet the assigned tasks, and the printing house collapsed. I. Kopievsky independently continued to publish books for Russia. He published over twenty titles of books, the most notable of which are "The Book Teaching the Sea Navigation" (1701), "Symbols and Emblems" (1705), "Leadership in Slavic-Russian Grammar" (1706), the first translations of ancient writers. Books were printed in Cyrillic, sometimes in combination with Latin scripts.
Solving the task set by Peter I so that “Russian subjects could receive a lot of service and profit and learn in all kinds of arts and disciplines,” foreign publishers strove to maintain the Russian traditions of book creation. So, in particular, they use the technique of Russian masters, when the set at the end of the book takes the shape of a triangle, they use engraved initials. At the same time, the domination of the European style is observed in the design of the title pages, namely, a strict text without any frills and embellishments. In the book "Symbols and Emblems", published by the printing house of Heinrich Westtein in 1705, a list of typos appears for the first time.
Despite the diligence of Dutch printers, books published in Amsterdam did not find a lively demand in Russia and sold slowly over several years. Even the luxurious Emblemat edition, richly illustrated with emblems and allegorical pictures, was on sale throughout the first quarter of the 18th century.
For the production of engravings, an engraving workshop was opened in 1698 at the Armory. Its activities were headed by the Dutch master Adrian Schonebeck (1661-1705). He founded an engraving school, among his first students were Alexei Zubov, Pyotr Bunin. Foreign masters, Bliklant and DeWit, also worked here.
Initially, the workshop engraved and printed coats of arms-stamps on paper, cartouches for compasses. Soon, large sheet engravings began to be created depicting newly built ships of the Russian fleet, types of military battles, panoramas of cities.
In the years 1699-1700. Shkhonebek performed the first print of "The Siege of Azov in 1696", representing a wide panorama of the besieged city. He also engraved a map of the starry sky, technical drawings, artillery manuals. After the death of A. Shkhonebek in 1705, the workshop was headed by Peter Pikart (1668 / 69-1737). Engravers were constantly on the lookout for new subjects. To do this, they went to the active army, followed the surveyors, were present during the construction of fortresses and defensive structures. As a result of their efforts, a multitude of encounters (battles), persons (portraits), triumphal processions and fireworks have appeared. The foundations of Russian print engraving were laid in the Engraving Workshop.
In 1705, on the initiative of V.A. Kiprianov, the Civil Printing House was created - the first specialized enterprise in Russia for the production of secular books and prints. It operated according to the publishing program proposed by the founder. The printing house planned to publish "arithmetic big and small, grammars in different dialects, primer and medical primer, mathematical teaching, musical music."
The first edition of the printing house was an engraved sheet “ New way arithmetic ", which is a short and popular presentation of the textbook" Arithmetic ". The main products of this printing house are prints. During the short period of its existence (1705-1722), more than two dozen of them were produced.
V.A. Kiprianov took an active part in the preparation of his publications, often acting as an author, engraver, editor. He taught the art of engraving to many craftsmen. The most talented students were A. Rostovtsev and A. Zubov. Many geographical maps were published with their participation. World atlases were published twice - in 1707 and 1717. In 1713 the first educational atlas "The whole earth circle of the table" was engraved. It included five sheets. The most popular was the six-sheet "Bruce calendar" (1709-1715).
In addition to engravings, two books were published in the Civil Printing House: "Tables of Sines" (1716) and "Tables Horizontal" (1722). They were intended for navigators, as well as for navigators and students of navigation schools.
The civil printing house was one of the first to establish secular book publishing, and the experience of its activity was taken into account when creating new centers for Peter's book printing.
First of all, the oldest Russian printing house, the Moscow Printing House, was reorganized. The reconstruction began in 1708 with the production of civic stamp stamps and the introduction of a new type, called "civil". In 1710 the Engraving Workshop was transferred here. A type-casting workshop was set up in the printing house, which from now on supplied other printing houses in Moscow and St. Petersburg with new fonts.
Gradually the number of printing mills increased, and the staff grew as well. In 1722 it consisted of 175 people: directories, book readers, engravers, printers from Fryazhsk (printers of engravings), flag bearers, carvers, blacksmiths, clerks, etc. Sometimes hired workers were involved in urgent work, most often bookbinders. On the whole, it was a complex enterprise with a clear division of labor. The Moscow Printing House already performed the functions of not only a printing house, but also a publishing house. The first director was appointed an outstanding educator, author of books and translator F.P. Polikarpov (1670-1731).
Under his leadership, the publication of secular books was organized, primarily civil calendars, which enjoyed popular recognition. The general management of book publishing was carried out by the country's spiritual department - the Synod, established in 1721 instead of the Monastery Prikaz.
In 1711, another universal printing house was opened - St. Petersburg. For its equipment, according to the decree of Peter I of October 29, 1710, the printing press was taken from the Printing House, the fonts were taken and the masters translated. At the beginning of 1711, a printing house in the new capital was already operating. There were 4 typesetters, 2 tereder and 2 batyr workers. In the future, the staff of the printing house steadily increased, and over the years it has become the largest printing house in the country. In 1722, there were already 5 printing mills, which were served by over 80 people. In 1714, an engraving workshop was opened, equipped with a "figured mill" for making illustrations for books, as well as engravings.
In May 1711 the first edition of the St. Petersburg printing house was published - the newspaper "Vedomosti", and a year later the first dated book "A Brief Image of Trials and Litigation" was published. In the future, the printing house published educational and general education books, military and naval literature, technical manuals and calendars. The number of books published in this printing house grew from year to year. Thus, in the first twelve years of its existence, the volume of book publishing increased fourfold.
The most significant was the publication of The Book of Mars, which was replenished over the years (1713-1716) with engravings reflecting the events of the Northern War. The concept of the book was not finally realized, and it remained unfinished.
Moscow and Petersburg printing houses exchanged books, reprinted them from each other, for which they borrowed fonts and engraving boards. At the same time, each of these printing houses introduced originality in their books, in the typing technique, in the elements of design and decoration. New publishing centers have opened in St. Petersburg under various departments. Their activity was of a specialized nature, and the printed matter was intended for the needs of state institutions and educational institutions.
In 1718 the Senate printing house was opened. It principally published legislative materials - decrees, manifestos, reports. The first editions of this printing house that have come down to us date back to 1721, although work in it began much earlier. Its activity was headed by the former typesetter of the Printing House Ivan Nikitin. Under his leadership, the staff of the printing house grew steadily, its equipment was improved.
Initially, the printing house had only one civil press, then two more printing mills were acquired, which remained after the death of V.A. Kiprianov at the Printing House. His son V.V. Kiprianov did not publish books, and the camps, according to him, stood at his doorstep. Therefore, he sold them along with the equipment to the Senate Printing House.
In 1719, on the initiative of F. Prokopovich (1681-1736), a prominent church figure, the printing house of the Alexander Nevsky Monastery was opened. She published books printed in Cyrillic. Its most famous edition is F. Prokopovich's primer "The First Teaching to the Youngsters", which went through twelve editions in five years from 1720 to 1724. Translations of books were published, for example, the historical works "Theatron, or Historical Shame" (1720).
At the beginning of 1721, the printing house of the Naval Academy was established. Initially, the needs of the students were met at the expense of the Moscow and St. Petersburg printing houses. Thus, the practical manuals for navigators "Tables of declination of the sun" and "Tables of the difference in width" were ordered in Moscow from the Civil Printing House, but by April 1721 they were published in the own printing house of the Maritime Academy. The bulk of its products were literature nautical theme... Most often, these were translated works by English and Dutch authors.
During the period of Peter the Great's reforms, a centralized system of book publishing took shape in Russia, in which the Printing House occupied the leading place.
For the first time, specialized book publishing centers arose, which served the needs of various departments.
Strict regulation and control over the activities of printing houses made it possible in the shortest possible time to organize the release of books that met the set state tasks, contributed to the formation of a new ideology.
In 1703, the Vedomosti newspaper was created - the first organ of the Russian press, conceived as a mass media. It replaced the handwritten Chimes and became more accessible to a wide range of consumers. In 1703 alone, 39 issues were issued. The newspaper contained material from foreign sources, reports of diplomats. Initially, information of a military nature dominated, with particular coverage of military operations against the Swedes. Gradually the pages of the newspaper were filled with reports on the construction of ships, canals, on lunar and solar eclipses, on the opening of new factories and manufactories. Beginning in 1719, Vedomosti more and more reflected the events of the country's internal life. The material was drawn from reports from localities: from provinces, from various government agencies. Peter I constantly made sure that the newspaper reflected everything "that is necessary for leading to the people."
In the second decade of the 18th century. printing houses appear in the new Russian capital - Petersburg. The first of them, the St. Petersburg Printing House, was founded in 1710. It produced the bulk of civil books, and in a short time became the leading printing house in the country. The first dated book published by this printing house in July 1712, "A Brief Description of Trials, or Litigation", sets out the rules for the proceedings of the court and investigation.
In 1720, a second printing house was opened at the Alexander Nevsky Monastery in St. Petersburg. It printed Sermons and Words by F. Prokopovich and other associates of Peter I, some textbooks, including F. Prokopovich's popular primer “The First Teaching by a Boy” in Cyrillic script.
In 1721, a printing house was formed at the Senate, where in a large number printed legislative documents - decrees, regulations, statutes, as well as manifestos and other literature.
For the needs of students and the printing of orders of the Admiralty Collegium, a printing house was created at the Moscow Academy.
On the pace of development of book printing in the first quarter of the 18th century. Figures speak: if in 1701 8 book titles were published, then in 1724 - 149. In 24 years the publishing output increased almost 19 times. Publishing reached its highest rise in 1720-1722, i.e. at the end of the Northern War.
Themes and types of publications in the first quarter of the 18th century.
Russian books of the first quarter of the 18th century. were connected with the practical tasks and needs of the state, contributed to the implementation of transformations, helped to assimilate everything new that was introduced into the life of Russia. Their topics are very diverse and new. Most of all there were publications of a political nature necessary for the government to influence the masses. The propaganda role was played by decrees, regulations and manifestos reflecting the development of Russian legislation. Political publications also include reports on military operations and victories in the Northern War. They were printed on one side of a sheet and pasted in places where people gathered for wide acquaintance with them.
In connection with the wide network of general education and special schools that opened in the first quarter of the 18th century, there was a great need for textbooks, especially for primary education. Among the new primers, two are especially interesting - "The First Teaching by a Adolescent" by F. Prokopovich and "An Honest Mirror of Youth". In the first of them, instead of the prayers usual in old primers, their interpretations were given, which greatly facilitated the learning of literacy for children. The foreword spoke about parenting. "Honest Mirror of Youth" is the first secular textbook. At the beginning of the book, the alphabet, syllables and numbers were given, and at the end - exercises - the rules of behavior and good taste. Such books contributed to the restructuring of the world outlook and life of the Russian people.
In addition to the primers, dictionaries were published, for example, "A three-lingual lexicon, that is, sayings of Slavic, Greek-Greek and Latin treasures", compiled by F.P. Polikarpov. Dictionaries and study guides foreign languages were necessary in international relations, in navigation, in science, so much attention was paid to their publication.
Textbooks on mathematics became very important: without knowledge of mathematics, industry, military engineering and naval affairs could not develop. As a rule, they were of an applied nature. A typical example of such a textbook is "Arithmetic", compiled "for the sake of teaching wise-loving Russian youths, and of every rank and age of people" by the Russian mathematician, teacher of the Moscow Navigation School L.F. Magnitsky. "Arithmetic" was published in 1703. The content of the book is much wider than its title. It provides initial information on arithmetic, algebra, geometry, trigonometry in their practical application to mechanics, geodesy, navigation. Magnitsky's "arithmetic" aroused interest in science, was understandable and accessible to a wide range of readers of the 18th century. Many generations of Russian people have learned from this book, which has absorbed all modern knowledge in the field of mathematics.
In 1708 Geometry Slavski Zemmerye, the first book of the civil press, was published. On title page it was noted that the book was printed in a new font, "published with a new typographic stamping", the place and date of publication were indicated - "In the reigning great city of Moscow" on March 1, 1708 "Geometry" was of an applied nature - it provided not only theoretical knowledge, but also ways of it practical application in various branches of technology, knowledge in the field of drawing. The book contains many drawings and images of fortresses. The original edition of Geometry (200 copies) did not satisfy the need, and it was reprinted several times and distributed in handwritten copies.
The wars waged by Russia, the creation of the army and navy caused a great need for special literature on military engineering, fortification, artillery equipment, navigation, shipbuilding, etc.
In 1708, the first printed technical book was published. It was devoted to hydraulic engineering and was called "The Book of Ways to Create Free Flowing of Rivers", abbreviated as "The Book of Slyuznaya". It was a translation of a book by the engineer Buje, published anonymously in Amsterdam in 1696. Its appearance is associated with the construction of waterways necessary for the development of industry and trade.
Urban planning in Russia in the first quarter of the 18th century, especially the construction of St. Petersburg, increased interest in architecture and construction technology. Related to this is the publication of a book by the outstanding Italian architect Giacomo Barozzi da Vignola, who, together with Michelangelo, built the Cathedral of St. Peter in Rome, "The Rule of the Five Ranks of Architecture." The edition contains more than one hundred engravings with explanatory text. Books on architecture are adjoined by an album of engravings called "Kunshty Gardens". The engravings show garden pavilions, gazebos, trellises, vases, etc.
In connection with the development of navigation, the demand for books on astronomy has increased. The "Book of the Worldview, or Opinion on the Celestial Globes" was published twice. This is the first printed edition to present the Copernican system in popular form. The author of the book, Dutch mechanic, physicist and mathematician Christian Huygens, described the structure Solar system, the structure and movement of the planets, gave an idea of the distances of the universe, developed the idea of organic life on the planets.
"Geography, or a Brief Description of the Earth Circle" was published several times. The book contains additions concerning Russia.
"General geography" B. Varenia, translated from Latin by F. Polikarpov, gives a physical and geographical description of the globe. Separate chapters are devoted to "ship science". The book uses mathematical and astronomical information.
In terms of the number of publications, humanitarian literature occupied a prominent place in the time of Peter the Great. Of the 50 books on the humanities, 26 are historical disciplines, 12 are politics, 8 are philology, 1 is jurisprudence, and 1 is librarianship. Historical works were published especially frequently. These are "Synopsis" by I. Gisel, "History ... about the destruction of Jerusalem", "A brief description of the wars from the books of Caesar." In the "Introduction to European history" by the German scientist S. Pufendorf not only the chronology of events is given, but for the first time an attempt is made to generalize historical facts... Historical books include the "Book of Mars, or military affairs." These are separate reports and "jurnals" about the battles in the Northern War and engravings. They were collected over a number of years and were bound only as needed.
In the change of the Moscow everyday life, a large role was played by "Different applications of how the compliments are written", in which new samples of letters were given. "Buttons" taught politeness, respect for the individual, for the first time they introduced an address to "you". The same role was played by the book "Conversations of Friendship" by Erasmus of Rotterdam, which contained examples of polite conversation. There are not many works of fiction so far. Translations of the ancient classics were mainly published - the fables of Aesop and others.
Prose and poetic greetings to various solemn days, collections of moralizing stories, war stories, and proverbs were also published. Calendars were published in large editions every year. They also provided a variety of information from history, astronomy, medicine. The first "January" calendar was published in Amsterdam by the Tesing printing house. In Moscow, it was printed in civilian type in 1708 Circulation of books of that time ranged from 100 to 1200 copies, but alphabets, church books and government decrees were published in much larger numbers. In total, in the first quarter of the 18th century. 561 books were published, including about 300 civil books, which have now become a bibliographic rarity.
The first Russian printed newspaper
During the entire first quarter of the 18th century. The first Russian printed newspaper Vedomosti was published, replacing the handwritten Courants.
The first issues of Vedomosti were published on December 16-17, 1702, but their printed copies have not survived. On December 27, 1702, a thousandth edition of "Jurnal, or" Day painting "was published, which was repaired during the passing siege near the fortress Noteburkh. September from the 26th in 1702 ". The first surviving number is dated January 2, 1703. The beginning of the Russian periodical press is counted from it. "Vedomosti" usually consisted of four pages in 1/12 of a sheet, some issues came out in a larger format with the number of pages up to 22.
Until 1710, Vedomosti was printed in small church type, from February 1 (12), 1710 - in civil type, but the most important issues were also reprinted in the old Cyril type for wider distribution. Since 1714, most of the circulation of Vedomosti was printed in St. Petersburg.
The circulation of Vedomosti ranged from tens to several thousand copies. The frequency was uncertain. There were also handwritten collections of Vedomosti. Vedomosti's topics are varied. Vedomosti appeared at a time when Russia was straining all its forces to resist Charles XII. The Vedomosti edition was supposed to help unleash counter-propaganda. Carefully selecting the facts, the newspaper in its reports from the theater of military operations, created a broad and eloquent picture of the increase in the military power of Russia, the growth of its superiority over the Swedish army.
The newspaper often published materials about the successes of Russian industry, popularized the successes of education. In the first issue that has come down to us, we read: “By the command of His Majesty, Moscow schools multiply, and 45 people listen to philosophy and have already graduated from dialectics. More than 300 people study at the Mathematical School of Sturman and accept good science. " "Vedomosti" reported on the events of foreign life, covering them from the point of view of the state interests of Russia. A large place in the newspaper was occupied by trade information directly related to the interests of the Russian merchants. The newspaper was edited in turn by F. Polikarpov, M. Avramov and B. Volkov. The court chronicle was kept (since 1720) by the translator of the Ambassadorial Prikaz Yakov Sinyavich.
The circulation of the newspaper did not always diverge, and the leftovers, as a rule, went as material for the binding of books. The publication of "Vedomosti" was stopped by the successors of Peter I after his death.
The Russian Tsar Peter I, as you know, was a great lover of the epistolary genre and modernization. Therefore, like no one else, he was aware of the need for the reformation of the Russian alphabet. Reforms of the alphabet were carried out by Peter I in 1708 and 1710. He replaced the previously existing Church Slavonic alphabet with a civil one through reforms.
The tsar freed the alphabet from the letter "psi", streamlined the doubled and overlaid designation of sounds. He removed the letter "omega" as one of the two letters denoting the sound [o]. Similarly, the Russian language parted with the letter "earth". Before that, it was the second letter for the sound [z]. For the sound "and" three letters were used in writing, including "Izhitsa", which was removed from the alphabet in 1708, and returned to it again in 1710 at the insistence of the church.
The tsar-reformer not only cleared the alphabet of the "interfering", but also added the "missing" to it. The letters "e" and "I" enriched the alphabet precisely because Peter legalized them. Various spellings of lowercase and uppercase letters were also introduced by Peter. Arabic numerals have firmly entered into use, titles and accents in every word have ceased to be obligatory.
The font legalized by Peter was called civil. He published secular literature. The famous first "Vedomosti" was printed in civilian type. In Amsterdam, three different sizes font: originals 32 lowercase and 4 uppercase letters.
Thanks to all these innovations, the literary Russian language has undergone a serious Europeanization. And the Church Slavonic alphabet "remained" only in church books. According to Mikhail Lomonosov, by the will of Peter the Great, the letters, following the boyars and boyars, "threw off their wide fur coats and dressed in summer clothes."
Peter I, manufactured in 1707-1708. of the first set of the new Russian so-called "civil" font, developed at his direction, excluded from the Russian alphabet eight of these nine letters: L6 L6 E6 36 R6 and also f "fert" (leaving = "fit"), z "earth" (leaving "zelo"), and (leaving :). This is how the first book typed in civilian type was printed - "Geometria Slavic Semlemirie" (1708).
However, later, Peter restored most of these letters, and only I "yus", Y "psi", E "omega", and also b "ot" - E with the m inscribed above it were not included in the educational alphabet of 1710. From 1711 to 1735, Russian civil books were printed in different ways - now with one, now with another composition of the alphabet.
The Peter's reform was of great revolutionary importance in the history of Russian writing. Having clearly shown the need for restructuring and updating the Russian alphabet, this reform, in addition, entailed a number of subsequent reforms carried out by the Academy of Sciences.
Civic font- the font introduced in Russia by Peter I in 1708 for printing secular publications as a result of the first reform of the Russian alphabet (changing the composition of the alphabet and simplifying the outline of the letters of the alphabet).
A prerequisite for the creation of a civil font was the fashion for the Latin alphabet, which spread among educated Russian people in the 1680s - 1690s. The civil script became a compromise between the supporters of traditions and those who sought to maximize the complete borrowing of Western culture.
Peter's reform of the Russian typographic type was carried out in 1708-1710. Its goal was to bring the look of Russian books and other printed editions closer to what Western European editions of that time looked like, which sharply differed from the typically medieval-looking Russian editions, which were typed in Church Slavonic type - semi-Ustav. In January 1707, based on sketches presumably made by Peter I personally, the draftsman and draftsman Kulenbach, who was at the headquarters of the army, made drawings of thirty-two lowercase letters of the Russian alphabet, as well as four uppercase letters (A, D, E, T). A complete set of font characters in three sizes based on Kulenbach's drawings was ordered in Amsterdam from the printing house of the Belarusian master Ilya Kopievich; at the same time, fonts based on these drawings were ordered in Moscow, at the Printing House.
As it is clear from Peter's letters, in June 1707 he received samples of the medium-sized font from Amsterdam, and in September, the impressions of the trial typesetting in large and small-sized fonts. In Holland, a printing press and other printing equipment were purchased, and qualified typographers were hired to work in Russia and train Russian specialists.
Close to Western European graphics, the new typeface was conceived to simplify typographic typesetting on printing presses manufactured in Western Europe... The new - civilian - font was intended for printing secular publications: official publications and periodicals, technical, military, scientific, educational and fiction literature. In addition to the introduction of a new pattern of letters, the composition of the alphabet has undergone a revision: superscripts and some doublet letters of the semi-unstav have been excluded, the letter is legalized NS, European (Arabic) numbers are approved instead of alphabetic designations of numbers, punctuation and the use of capital letters in the set are ordered. The application of the semi-ustav was limited to the sphere of liturgical literature.
The composition of the Russian alphabet and its graphics continued to change later. The alphabet settled down by the middle of the 18th century and remained in this form until the reforms of 1917-1918, while the outline of the letters completely coincided with the current one in the middle of the 19th century. Modeled on the Russian civil script and using the same letterforms (with the necessary changes) was in XVIII-XIX centuries the writing of other peoples who used the Cyrillic alphabet (Serbian, Bulgarian, Romanian) was reorganized.
The italic version of the civil typographic type has been used since 1734 (for the first time - in the newspaper "St. Petersburg Vedomosti"); it goes back to the engraved italics used a century earlier. Typographic italic styles were originally close to handwritten ones, but over time they changed under the influence of the direct type. As a result, in the current Cyrillic italics, capital letters are usually identical in construction with the letters of the direct type and differ only in the slant; in some typefaces - primarily chopped ones - strictly speaking, there is no italics at all, but only an italic font.
The handwritten version of the civil script (“civil letter”) was the last to develop - only in the second half of the 18th century. Previously, the old Moscow cursive script was used.
A new type of font introduced by Emperor Peter I for printing secular (“civil”) publications to replace the typesetting semi-charter as a result of the reform of the Russian typeface in 1708–1710. The civil type was built on the basis of Latin serifs and Moscow ceremonial cursive writing (civil writing). As a result of the reform, the drawing of letters was changed, the alphabet was modernized, the use of capital letters, punctuation marks and European Arabic numerals was streamlined, after which the Cyrillic script began to develop parallel to the Latin. As a result of the reform, the Cyrillic alphabet received most of the stylistic features of the Latin serif and thus appearance books in Russian was close to the European book. The sketches of the new letters were supposedly made by Peter I himself, and the further process of making and adjusting the font took place with his direct participation. On the basis of sketches in Amsterdam and Moscow, punches and dies were made for casting three pins of the new type, after which, by the decree of Peter I, it was forbidden to use the semi-ustav for publishing secular literature, which is why the new type later received its name.
Semantic roots of the term "design"
The semantic roots of the term "design" go back to the Latin "designare" - to define, to designate. Since the Renaissance, the Italian "disegno" has stood for projects, drawings, and fundamental ideas. In England, the concept of "design" spread in the 16th century.
The etymology (initial meanings) of the English-language concept of "design" covers several semantic series (according to E.N. Lazarev).
Genetically, a number of definitions of the "decorative" order are primary: pattern, ornament, decor, decoration, decoration.
The second row includes "design-graphic" interpretations: sketch, sketch, drawing, project itself, drawing, construction. The third row, which goes beyond the direct project, is “anticipatory” concepts: plan, assumption, design, intention.
And, finally, the fourth series of definitions is unexpectedly "dramatic": an idea, a trick, an intent, and even an intrigue.
This wide range of English-language meanings, combined with the keen social dimension of traditional design, with a particular focus on issues “ human factors»Quite fully corresponds to the designation of new types of project activities. Domestic terms used from the early 1960s to the 1980s - "artistic design" (official state) and "artistic design" (among artists, art historians and philosophers) - were more specific and at the same time narrower in meaning.
By design today we mean both the actual creative artistic or artistic and technical process in the field of design activities, and the results of this process - projects - sketches, drawings, layouts, other video and audio materials. The term "design" is also used to characterize completed projects - products, environmental objects, printing products, etc.
V English language the word "design" means - to design, construct - that is, any design, the process of creating new objects, tools, equipment, the formation of a subject environment. Design is a new type of artistic and design professional activity that arose in the XX century. Its goal is to create an integral aesthetic environment for human life. Designing objects in which the form corresponds to their purpose, functional, economical, convenient and at the same time beautiful
The ambiguity of the term "design" requires an explanation of this concept. If in the media, design, as a rule, is understood as the external appearance of things, interior and printed products, then at the level of theory, design is either the external appearance of a thing (the shape of a thing), or the process of its mental creation - design. Now that the roots of the term "design" have been forgotten and it has acquired new concepts, denoting the most diverse, often opposite phenomena and since different specialists understand design in different ways, as:
The appearance of the products.
The whole thing, including all functions; the process of its design; organizational activity.
A field of activity that includes theory, practice, products and services, a particular way of thinking.
Worldview and functionality
In the interests of research, it is necessary to determine the meaning of the term "design", and to find out the tasks of design, which implies an appeal to a qualitatively new degree of research - philosophical, as well as to the theory of culture, activity and social philosophy... The evidence of the value of such an analysis lies in the consideration of historical interpretations of design, which quite naturally clarifies its origin and essence.
The concept of "design" as a type of activity has become popular in late XIX century. The word "design" appeared for the first time in Europe and translated from Italian means the concept of creating a work of art born from the artist and inspired by God. In the Oxford Dictionary, you can find your own interpretation of this word: "A man-made plan or scheme for something that will be implemented, the first draft of a future work of art." Note that the evolution of the content of the concept of "design" clearly demonstrates qualitatively new semantic and methodological definitions, with different objectives.
Today the term "design" is commonly used to characterize the process of artistic and technical design, as well as to determine the results of this process - projects and projects already implemented. It is important to note the fact that the place of design, its role and purpose in the production and economic, as well as in the cultural spheres of society are not clearly defined. Researchers of this phenomenon, philosophers, art historians, teachers often disagree in views and judgments about the goals and objectives of design. However, there is some experience in design theory, according to the definition adopted at the International Design Seminar in Bruges, “Design is a creative activity whose purpose is to define the formal properties of industrial products. These qualities include and outward signs products, but mainly structural and functional relationships that transform the product into a coherent whole, both from the point of view of the consumer and the manufacturer. "
On January 29 (February 8), 1710, Peter's reform of the Cyrillic alphabet was completed in Russia - Peter I approved the new civil alphabet and civil script. Russian Orthodox Church continued to use the Church Slavonic alphabet.
The reform was related to the needs of the state, which needed a large number of educated domestic specialists and in the timely delivery of official information to the population. The achievement of these goals was hindered by the poor development of book printing, which was oriented mainly towards the dissemination of spiritual literature and did not take into account changes in the language. By the end of the 17th century. the alphabet that came to Russia together with Christian writing, retained its archaic features, despite the fact that some letters in the texts of secular content were not used or were used incorrectly. In addition, the shape of the letters, which was established within the framework of the written culture, was inconvenient for typing printed texts due to the presence of superscripts. Therefore, in the course of the reform, both the composition of the alphabet and the shape of the letters changed.
The search for a new model of the alphabet and type was carried out with the most active participation of the tsar. In January 1707, based on sketches presumably made by Peter I personally, the fortification engineer Kulenbach made drawings of thirty-three lowercase and four uppercase letters (A, D, E, T) of the Russian alphabet, which were sent to Amsterdam for the production of letters. At the same time, according to the Tsar's decree, type casting work was carried out at the Moscow Printing House, where Russian masters Grigory Alexandrov and Vasily Petrov, under the guidance of type writer Mikhail Efremov, made their own version of the font, but the quality of the type did not satisfy the tsar, and the type of Dutch masters was adopted for printing books. The first book, typed in a new civilian type, - Geometry Slavic Land Survey, was published in March 1708.
Later, based on the results of typesetting tests, the king decided to change the shape of some letters and return several rejected letters of the traditional alphabet (believed to be at the insistence of the clergy). On January 18, 1710, Peter I made the last proofreading, deleting the first versions of the signs of the new font and the old signs of the printed semi-ustav. On the back of the alphabet binding, the tsar wrote: "These letters should be printed in historical and manifacture books, but which are underlined, those in the above-written books should not be used." The decree on the introduction of the new alphabet was dated January 29 (February 9), 1710. Soon after the publication of the decree, a list of books printed with the new alphabet and on sale appeared in the "Gazette of the Moscow State".
As a result of the Peter's reform, the number of letters in the Russian alphabet was reduced to 38, their style was simplified and rounded. The forces (a complex system of accent diacritics) and the title - the superscript mark, which allowed letters to be skipped in the word - were canceled. The use of capital letters and punctuation marks was also streamlined, instead of alphabetic numerals, Arabic numerals began to be used.
The composition of the Russian alphabet and its graphics continued to change and later towards simplification. The modern Russian alphabet came into use on December 23, 1917 (January 5, 1918) on the basis of the decree of the People's Commissariat of Education of the RSFSR "On the introduction of a new spelling."
Peter's reforms were always perceived ambiguously: some of his contemporaries saw in him an innovator who “opened a window to Europe”, someone reproached him for hatred of everything that was domestic. Contemporary historians are sometimes no less polar in their assessments of the activities of the first Russian emperor.
The attitude towards Peter the Great was and remains ambiguous
During the reign of Peter, there were, among other things, rumors that he had been replaced by a foreign impostor: so strong was the sovereign's thirst for reforms and changes in the way of life of Russia that had been established over the centuries after his return from the Great Embassy.
The church reform turned out to be especially interesting and closely related to the language reform. Peter strove with all his might to get away from the boundless influence of the church, its interference in governing the country, therefore, after the death of Patriarch Adrian in 1700, he actually abolished the institution of the patriarchate: it was replaced by the Holy Synod controlled by the sovereign.
Church reform was closely related to language reform
Church revenues and estates were placed under state control thanks to the reform of 1701, after Peter restored the Monastic Order. Church authority weakened under the pressure of the secular authorities, and the language reform contributed to an even greater opposition of the "spiritual" and "civil".
The alphabet of Cyril and Methodius
As you remember, the alphabet of Cyril and Methodius was an ecclesiastical “Grecophile” initiative, while Peter's reform of the alphabet implied a “Latinophile” orientation, the division of the alphabet into civil and ecclesiastical. The new civil script was supposed to embody the traditions of the new "secularized consciousness", while the Church Slavonic language remained the personification of the old culture.
New alphabet
Imperial Rome was to become the landmark of the new Russia
Rome was to become the landmark of the new Russia, but not a Christian one under church influence, but an imperial one with strong state power. It was this new perception of power that was, among other things, one of the main ideas of Peter during the reform. During his reign, the volume of print production increased sharply, new printing houses began to open. With the advent of the new alphabet, lists of books printed in a new image and already on sale began to be published in the "Gazette of the Moscow State", which diluted the abundance of spiritual literature at the beginning of the 18th century.
An official decree introducing a new civilian script was promulgated on January 29 (February 9), 1710. The first alphabet is written in the hand of Peter: “Simi letters to print historical and manifacture books. And which are underlined (crossed out), those (in) the above books should not be used. "
The new font was developed by Russian and Dutch craftsmen
The history of the creation of the new font was no less interesting than the language reform itself: in January 1707, according to sketches allegedly made by Peter personally, Kulenbach, a fortification engineer, draftsman and draftsman, made drawings of 33 lowercase and 4 uppercase letters (A, D, E, T) , which were later sent to Amsterdam for the manufacture of letters. At the same time, by state decree, Grigory Aleksandrov and Vasily Petrov were working on their version of the typeface under the direction of typewriter Mikhail Efremov at the Moscow printing yard. Ultimately, the sovereign was chosen Dutch variant, subjected to the last proofreading on January 18, 1710: some letters were changed, some of those previously excluded were returned (they say, the clergy insisted). As a result, only three letters b6, E6 and Ы were excluded.
As a result of the 1710 reform, the letters became more rounded.
The shape of the letters has also changed: they have become more rounded and it has become much easier to write them. A unified procedure for the use of capital letters and punctuation marks was introduced; different types accents and aspirations, and completely inconvenient for typographic set. The alphabetic numerals were replaced by Arabic numerals: already in 1703, the first book in Russian with Arabic numerals was published.
During the reign of Peter, Arabic numerals replaced alphabetic numerals
Thanks to the transition to a new civilian font, it has become easier to read, which means it has become easier to train and train educated specialists, to inform the population, which is still illiterate, government information faster and more timely. The secular character also invaded education, the exact sciences began to compete with theological disciplines ... But this is a completely different story.
