Chapter 24 Optional Caesarean Section Some women who have a normal pregnancy want to have a caesarean section, even though they have no complications or problems with the baby. Some of them find it convenient to accurately schedule the due date. If you are used to

The Holy Scriptures of the New Testament about attitudes towards politics and the state

In his eschatological speech on the Mount of Olives, speaking of the signs of the last days of this world, he predicts to his disciples and followers: “You will be delivered to judges and beaten in synagogues, and before rulers and kings they will set you up for Me, for a testimony before them…. And you will be hated by all for my name; but he who endures to the end will be saved "(). Very soon after these words were uttered, the "rulers and kings" began to energetically fulfill the prophecy said about them. The host of Christ's witnesses from century to century was replenished with new and new martyrs. It seems that this stream of those killed for the name of the Lord reached its climax in the 20th century. But is this the climax? Or? "It ought to be, but it's not over yet." ().

Indeed, there is something to marvel at. Not only the wisdom of what Jesus said, but also the witty resourcefulness of His actions. It is enough to look at the whole situation, taking into account the realities of that time. The opponents of Jesus Christ ask Him a cunning trap question: Should a tribute be paid to a pagan ruler or not? Saying "Yes", He will prove to be a friend of the Romans, an antipatriot and even a lawless person. By saying "No", He risks being accused as a rebel zealot, a "robber." Jesus' first word - "Bring me a denarius so that I can see it." One might think that Jesus never saw a Roman denarius, that His eyes were not defiled by the sight of the "icon" of Caesar depicted on the coin. Now, they say, He wants to see the money about which He is asked. A pious Jew did not have the right to bring Roman money with images of Caesar into the temple. A different, temple currency was used in the temple. However, the "pious" Pharisees, not catching the catch, take out a denarius (in the temple!) And present it to Jesus. The famous word follows: "Give what is Caesar's to Caesar, but what is God's to God." This answer was unexpected, it made you think, because it sounded mysterious to those around you.

State religiosity, or sacralized statehood, is a feature that, to varying degrees, distinguished practically all societies of the ancient world. Power is either directly deified, as in Babylon, Egypt or (somewhat later) in Rome, or takes on sacred forms, as in the Old Testament. The tempting question of Jesus' opponents, comparing God to Caesar, practically puts these two objects of comparison on the same ontological plane. Jesus' answer decisively separates God and Caesar into different ontological "floors", making the comparison itself irrelevant and impossible. The subject of the conversation is thus elevated to theological heights. Jesus' "godly" tempters are put to shame both practically and theoretically.

From a different point of view and in a completely different situation, the Apostle Paul discusses the authorities. The Christian lives in a state-run society. Yes, a pagan society is not a very pleasant environment for a Christian. But he cannot get out of it: “I wrote to you in a letter - not to associate with fornicators; however, not in general with the fornicators of this world, or covetous people, or predators, or idolaters, for otherwise you ought to have gone out of this world "(). Moreover, Christians not only cannot leave the surrounding society, but also do not have the right to do so, for their task is to carry the saving Gospel into this society. Therefore, the Apostle Paul offers the sociology of the integration of the Church into society as a kind of missiological value. The purpose of this integration is not to jeopardize or compromise the Church's testimony of the gospel. This, in turn, is in order to attract the “outsiders”, to save them, to “acquire” them for Christ.

The famous instruction of the Apostle in the Epistle to the Romans is very indicative in this respect.

“Let every soul be submissive to the highest authorities, for there is no power not from God; the existing authorities from God are established. Therefore, the one who resists the authority opposes God's ordinance. And those who oppose themselves will incur condemnation. For the rulers are not afraid of good deeds, but of evil ones. Do you want not to be afraid of power? Do good, and you will receive praise from her, for the leader is God's servant, for your good. If you do evil, be afraid, for he does not carry a sword in vain: he is God's servant, an avenger in punishment to the one who does evil. And therefore one must obey not only out of fear of punishment, but also out of conscience. For this, you also pay taxes, for they are God's servants, who are constantly busy with this. So give everyone their due: to whom to give, to give; to whom the rent, the rent; to whom fear, fear; to whom honor, honor "( ).

Unfortunately, in the history of the interpretation of these words of the Apostle, the idea that all worldly power, good or evil, is "from God" has been too emphasized. We know from history that this too often led to abuse. And here we should take a closer look at the letter of the text of the Apostle Paul and at its intention. First of all, one should pay attention to the fact that the Apostle writes to the capital of the empire, to the Rome of the emperor Nero (54–68 RC), in which, although not yet fully manifested, tendencies towards the deification of imperial power have long been outlined. Therefore, the following motive cannot escape our attention: the Apostle Paul indirectly indicates to the state authority its place not in the pantheon, but before the throne of the One God. This is clearly indicated by the very first sentence of the passage. An important nuance is not noticeable in the translation. "There is no power not from God." In the accepted critical text, in this case, the preposition is not used apo(from), but the preposition hypo(under). And this preposition expresses not just origin, but also subordination, establishes a kind of hierarchy, the "top-bottom" relationship. Compare: "Everything is under sin"(), to be "Under the law"(), or, for example, the words of John the Baptist to Jesus: "I need to be baptized by You"(), where the preposition hypo is also used, that is, "under". Indeed, to say that “the power from God "- it's like saying nothing, for all from God, not just "power." It is not just about the institution of authority from God, but also about the principled submission of authority to God. Further, the Apostle writes that power is just a servant, a slave of God (). There is some inaccuracy in the Russian Synodal translation: "The chief is God's servant", while in the original: "she (power) is God's servant." And this is in a situation where the population of the Roman Empire deified the power and its bearers. The Apostle unobtrusively polemicizes with such a pagan delusion and indicates to the “power” her place is not a goddess, but a servant of the true God. If this servant is conscientiously carrying out her duty, fulfilling the will of her Master, that is, God, then our conscience should also move us to obedience to authority (). The duty of state power, in accordance with the will of God, is indicated by the Apostle in the most general terms. After all, it is understandable by itself, based on elementary common sense: "The rulers are afraid not for good deeds, but for evil"... Immediately after the admonition about the attitude towards the authorities, the Apostle summarizes these "good deeds" in one word - love. “Do not owe anything to anyone except mutual love; for the one who loves another has fulfilled the law "(). At the end of his exhortation, the Apostle Paul, as it were, recalls the saying of Jesus Christ about Caesar and God: “To whom fear, fear; to whom honor, honor "... The Old Testament instruction read: "Fear, my son, the Lord and the king"(). In the New Testament, the Lord and the king, as already mentioned, are divorced on different "floors": "Fear God, Honor the King"(). Caesar - earthly honor, God - reverential fear.

The trend of the rational and useful integration of the Church into the surrounding society, outlined by the Apostle Paul, continued and developed in the Pastoral Epistles, which were largely adapted to the surrounding culture. The Church itself is institutionalized, and gradually the difference between the Church and the secular social institutions is getting smaller and smaller. Church leaders are endowed with the qualities of good citizens rather than charismatic believers. It is enough to compare the enumeration of the virtues of the bishop and deacon c with the enumeration of the blessed gifts in! Slaves should honor their masters not as brothers in the Lord (compare the Epistle to Philemon), but “Must honor their mastersworthy of all honor so that there is no blasphemy against the name of God and doctrine "(). Women, as was customary in ancient society, should know their place: “Let the wife study in silence, with all submission; but I do not allow my wife to teach, nor to rule over her husband, but to be in silence "(). Compare: "No male or female"... with her prayer she must support the secular authorities.

But this stability in relations between Church and state was very fragile. By the end of the first Christian century, during the era of Emperor Domitian (81–96 RC), the official persecutions began, which lasted more than 200 years. The New Testament monument of this era is the book of Revelation of John the Theologian. The attitude of the Church towards the pagan state is one of the defining themes of this book. The Apostle Paul pointed out that state power has the basis of its existence in God. But the power that persecutes the Son of God and His followers, thereby deprives itself of the very foundation of its existence and turns from a "servant of God" into a "harlot of Babylon."

The Book of Revelation in the figurative and symbolic form, characteristic of the apocalyptic literature of that time, depicts the dramatic opposition of the power of God and the usurpatory power of anti-divine forces on earth. As a result of this confrontation, the petition of the prayer "Our Father" is fulfilled: “Thy kingdom come; Thy will be done on earth as in heaven "(). John's revelation is full of political pathos, clothed in many images. This abundance of vivid images in Revelation creates a whole symbolic world. Readers enter this world, and thus their perception of the world around them changes. The importance of this is obvious due to the fact that the first readers of this book, residents of large cities of the Roman Empire, constantly came into contact with influential images of the pagan vision of the world. Architecture, iconography, statues, rituals, festivals, "miracles" in the temples - all created a powerful impression of the greatness and invincibility of the imperial power and the dazzle of the pagan religion. In this context, the Apocalypse provides counter-images that give readers a different view of the world: how the world looks from heaven, to which John is taken in chap. 4. There is, as it were, a purification of the gaze: an understanding of what the world really is and how it should be. For example, in Ch. 17 John's readers see a woman. She looks like the goddess Roma in glory and greatness (the image of Roman civilization). She was worshiped in many temples of the empire. But in the image of John the Evangelist, she is a Roman ("Babylonian") harlot. Her wealth and splendor are the results of her disgusting occupation. In it you can see the features of the prodigal queen Jezebel from the Bible. This is how readers understand the true nature of the Roman pagan empire: moral decay behind propaganda illusions.

The images of Revelation are symbols that have the power to transform the perception of the world. But they act not only with the help of verbal pictures. Their meaning is largely determined by the composition of the book. The book's surprisingly meticulous literary composition creates an intricate web of literary references, parallels and contrasts that give meaning to the parts and the whole. Of course, not everything is realized from the first reading. Awareness of this wealth of meanings progresses through intensive study.

The revelation is rich in allusions from the Old Testament. They are not accidental, but essential for realizing the meaning. Without realizing these allusions, not noticing them, the meaning of most images is almost inaccessible to understanding. John's precise and subtle use of Old Testament allusions creates a reservoir of meaning that can be progressively unfold.

Along with allusions to the images of Revelation, they reflect the mythology of the modern world of John. So, for example, when Revelation depicts the kings of the East invading the Empire in alliance with “The beast that was and is not; and he will rise from the abyss "(17: 8), then this is a reflection of the popular myth about the resurrected emperor Nero, that Nero, who for some was a disgusting tyrant, but for others - a liberator. One day he, "resurrected", will stand at the head of the Parthian troops in order to take possession of Rome and take revenge on his enemies. John uses historical facts, fears, hopes, images and myths of their contemporaries, in order to make all this elements of the great Christian prophecy. The images of the book of Revelation require careful study if the modern reader wishes to comprehend the theological meaning of the book. A lack of understanding of imagery and how it conveys meaning is responsible for many misinterpretations of Revelation, even among enlightened modern scholars. Comprehension of the symbolic world of the Apocalypse reveals to us that this book is not only one of the most sophisticated literary works New Testament, but also one of the great theological achievements of early Christianity. Here literary and theological merits are inseparable.

The state in Revelation is presented in a demonic form. Of course, the real state is never absolutely demonic, but this aspect of it is revealed here, which then, during the time of the emperor Domitian and his successors, for Christians seemed predominant. At the end of the 12th chapter, the dragon (that is, Satan), cast down from heaven, enters into war with Christians who keep the commandments of God and have the testimony of Jesus Christ. In chapter 13, two agents of Satan appear: the beast from the sea and the beast from the earth. The first beast is the image of the political and religious power of the Roman Empire, personified by individual emperors (heads of the beast). The second beast symbolizes the visual religious and political propaganda of Rome in the person of its local authorities and pagan priesthood. The first beast is the Antichrist, the second beast is the False Prophet. They are the eschatological ultimate images of all antichrists and false prophets of human history (;;). John describes Roman power in metahistorical terms, using mythological imagery and imagery to probe the deeper dimension of human history. The two beasts are called to depict the totality of all pagan world empires, the pinnacle of godless power on earth, claiming divine worship.

The beast from the earth () carries out all kinds of propaganda in favor of the Roman Empire, which is embodied by the beast from the sea. The iconic image of the totalitarian power of the beast from the sea is being erected. The worship of this image is a confirmation of loyalty to the pagan power through sacrifices. He who refuses to worship is killed. Behind these images is the biblical example of King Nebuchadnezzar, who set up a golden image and forced to worship him (). The text also reflects the experience of its time, from which we have heard reports of moving, "prophesying" and healing statues. John speaks not only of the mesmerizing influence of all these false miracles, but also of the power to compel worship on pain of death. This refers to the persecution of Christians who were killed while abandoning the imperial cult. As proof of loyalty, all social strata should accept the "mark" on the right hand and on the forehead. The motive of the eschatological "tracing" (or brand, tattoo, seal) is traditional. As the servants of God have the seal of their Lord on their foreheads (), so the servants of the beast have the corresponding "mark". Of course, it would be naive to believe that the divine sealing of the elect would be physical, just as circumcision of the heart would be a surgical act. It is just as strange to take the "mark" of the beast literally. We are talking about spiritual consent (voluntary or forced) to slavery to the beast-antichrist.

The study of the text of the Apocalypse gave a lot to understand the symbols of this unusual book. Exegetic research, in turn, opens the way for hermeneutics, that is, the interpretation, translation, transfer of the meaning of the book into the languages ​​of other peoples, times and cultures. Glimpses, shadows of eschaton, foreshadows of the end, announced, as we remember, by Jesus Christ in His conversation on the Mount of Olives, these foreshadows also existed during the writing of the book of Revelation, that is, in the era of state persecution of the Church of Christ in the era of Domitian. They exist, albeit to an incomparably lesser extent, and now, for "The mystery of lawlessness is already in action"(). How this action manifests itself and how to resist it is a question for each individual Christian and for the Church as a whole.

However, in our reflections on the text of Scripture, we must always be sober and judicious. Unfortunately, a cursory knowledge of Scripture leads to false interpretations. For example, we have recently witnessed unrest over government measures to assign individual tax numbers to citizens. These account numbers were in some incomprehensible way interpreted by some as the "number of the beast" 666. However, the exegesis of the text of Revelation shows that no individual identification (whether it is an individual insurance retirement number, all accepted without complaint; whether it is an individual taxpayer number that caused a rebellious ferment ), no external identification has the slightest relation to the "mark" from the Apocalypse. For the “mark” (no matter how it is interpreted in relation to a specific situation) necessarily implies a renunciation of Christ (apostasy) and the requirement to worship the totalitarian state (beast) with its religion and ideology of unlimited power, strength and wealth. This or that "mark" or seal does not precede the apostasy, but testifies to the already accomplished apostasy from God and Christ, to the sacrifice of the worship of Baal and Moloch to the satanocracy, under whatever mask it may appear. With one or another census, with or without numbers, the text of Revelation we are considering has nothing in common.

So, the book of Revelation offers us a completely different image of state power than the one that we saw in the epistles of the Apostle Paul. Before John's gaze stands the religiously embellished state power. It is totalitarian because, with its ideology, it demands from a person complete submission to himself, the identification of "Caesar" with God. The state is waging an open struggle with Christ and Him. John rejects loyalty to such a state as idolatry. However, this does not mean a denial of the state in general, but only a denial of perverted state power. Does this denial imply active resistance or struggle against the state? No. The whole meaning and spirit of the book of Revelation denies "wrestling against flesh and blood." In the confidence that believers have heavenly citizenship, since their names are inscribed in the Lamb's book of life (), they can withstand the oppression of the state cult and accept inevitable suffering (passive resistance). Endurance in trials, faithful testimony in word and deed, "Patience and faith of the saints"() - this and only this is capable of giving Christians a true, and not an imaginary and not a temporary victory over those forces of evil, which most openly appear as an earthly power seeking total submission to itself.

What should be the victory for Christians? Of course, not in the destruction of the godless world with all its inhabitants, as one might think, if one literally perceives the numerous military images of the Apocalypse. The victory of the Lamb and His faithful witnesses is the salvation of as many people as possible. In an extremely concentrated form, this victory of witnesses of truth over the forces of lies is shown in a symbolic image of what should happen at the end of history, before the opening of the last, seventh seal: “And at the same hour there was a great earthquake, and a tenth of the city fell, and seven thousand names of men perished in the earthquake; and the rest were seized with fear and gave glory to the God of heaven "(). Here we see the amazing symbolism of numbers borrowed from the Old Testament. If the Old Testament prophets have “a tenth of a city” (;) or “seven thousand” people () - a faithful, saved remnant, delivered from judgment and destruction of the majority of all “others”, then John reverses this symbolic arithmetic. Only one tenth of them undergoes judgment and destruction, and the "remnant", nine-tenths of the "others" give glory to God and are saved. It is not a minority that is saved, but the majority. Most people come to repentance, faith, and salvation. It is only thanks to the faithful testimony of Christians that the judgment of the world becomes salvation for the majority! John here, as in other places of his Apocalypse, symbolically emphasizes the novelty of the Christian Gospel message in comparison with the Old Testament prophetic message. So it is with "seven thousand human names." In this case, John refers to the result of the ministry of the prophet Elijah. There he condemned and punished all the unbelievers and saved only the faithful remnant, seven thousand who did not worship Baal (). Here the Lord, in the person of his faithful witnesses, on the contrary, leads to repentance and conversion of all, except seven thousand, who are overtaken by judgment. No, not flight from the world, from society, from the state, but the ministry commanded by Jesus Christ in the world, in society, in the state - this is the task of Christians. The Book of Revelation, like other books of the New Testament, does not specify the details of this ministry, pointing only to its general characteristics- true testimony. In different historical conditions, this testimony can and should be carried out in a variety of ways.

Considering the eschatological passages in the writings of the New Testament, which speak of the self-deification of state power, one cannot ignore the Second Epistle to the Thessalonians. This epistle, in keeping with the apocalyptic tradition, summarizes the signs of an impending end. These signs include the revelation of the sinister figure of the Antichrist. True, in the message this figure is portrayed rather as an Antigod: "A man of sin, a son of perdition, who resists and is exalted above everything that is called God or holiness, so that he will sit in the temple of God as if he were posing as God."(). At present, these claims of some godless forces to deify may be imperceptible, but we must remember that "the mystery of lawlessness is already in action." However, the revelation of this "secret" is hindered by another, retaining force: "And now you know what does not allow him to open up in due time"(2.6). Further, this power of "holding" is presented as the personality of the "holding": “The mystery of iniquity is already in action, only it will not be accomplished until the one who is holding back is taken from the environment now. And then the wicked will be revealed "(2.7-8). Unfortunately, the Synodal translation of the text, leaving much to be desired, rather misleads the reader and generates all sorts of strange interpretations.

The phenomenon of "holding" or "holding force" has been a torturous riddle for exegesis for centuries. In particular, starting from the II century, "state" interpretations of the "restraining" appeared. The first in this series of interpretations can be called St. Hippolytus of Rome. In his Commentary on the prophet Daniel (IV, 21.3) (approximately 203–204), St. Hippolytus, quoting 2 Thess, identified the "restraining" with the "fourth beast" of the prophet Daniel (), which, in his opinion, was the Roman Empire. This "political" understanding of the "holding" later appears in various modifications: the pagan Roman Empire, the Christian Roman Empire, the Roman Church, the Holy Roman Empire of the German nation, the Christian state, the democratic state, the state as such, the Russian Empire, etc. etc.

However, in Ancient Church existed along with the "state" and another, namely, the "theocentric" interpretation. Even St. Hippolytus elsewhere in the same Commentary on Daniel (IV, 12.1-2; 16.16; 23.2), we find this theocentric interpretation of the theme of "retention" and "delay". Research in recent decades has shown that there is a long apocalyptic tradition behind the topic of "retention". It is based on a strictly theocentric thought: All "times and seasons" are in the power of God. If the end does not come, but is postponed in some uncertainty, then this happens according to the plan of God. The very concept of "retainer" in the apocalyptic was a technical term for the delay of the parousia, occurring according to the design of God. Therefore, we can rightfully say that it is Himself who stands behind the figure of the “restraining”. This is God, and no one else is the Lord of times and seasons, beginning and end. God, and not this or that state, not this or that statesman, holds in his hands the history of the world - the Almighty.

Actually, the same theme of "retention", "procrastination" is one of the central themes of the book of Revelation. This topic is presented there very symbolically. The visions of the "seven seals" cause the destruction of a quarter of the earth, but the "executions" do not lead the world to repentance. The following visions of "seven trumpets" cause the death of a third part of the earth, but these "executions" do not lead to repentance (). The "executions" that should follow the visions of the "seven thunders" are called upon to punish the unfaithful and disobedient even more. But it becomes clear that "executions" alone, no matter how cruel they may be, cannot lead to repentance, and thus to salvation. Therefore, the "executions of seven thunders" are canceled (). Salvation for the world can come not through executions and punishment, but only through the faithful testimony of the Church, which is described further in the book of Revelation. But the very theme of keeping the end, connected with the expectation of people's repentance, manifests itself in Revelation very clearly. And this retention occurs, of course, not by the will of this or that kingdom, but only by the will of God.

The attitude towards the state with its laws can be compared with the attitude of the New Testament scriptures to the Old Testament Law. The law is not salvific in itself. Its function is limited both in substance and in time. He is only "Teacher to Christ"(). A schoolmaster (in Greek "teacher") is not a teacher. He only brought the child to school, to the teacher. The schoolmaster remained outside the school threshold. So the Law was called to lead the people of God to their true Teacher and Savior, to Christ. "After the coming of faith, we are no longer under the guidance of a schoolmaster."(). But mutatis mutandis, we can say the same with understandable limitations and reservations about any law, about any right, not only about the Law of Moses.

The Apostle Paul, in the Epistles to Galatians and Romans, examines the problem of the Law in detail, linking this problem with the question of human freedom. "You Brothers Called to Freedom"(). - the highest good of man, who was created in the image of God, and carries this image of Divine freedom. And we perfectly understand that in the world of sin, the full realization of this freedom, the realization of the image of God is fundamentally impossible. Attempts at its absolute realization (self-deification in arbitrariness, lawlessness and anarchy) lead to mutual destruction, to death. "You are called to freedom, brethren, if only your freedom is not an occasion to please the flesh ... If you bite and eat each other, beware that you are not destroyed by each other."(). Social laws approved by the state, in this the world is necessary and inevitable. It goes without saying. But at the same time, we must always remember that laws and statehood are not absolute values. They were given, according to Vladimir Solovyov, not in order to create heaven on earth, but so that life on earth does not become hell. They are not absolute values, if only because they contradict human essence. By limiting human freedom in principle, the laws contradict the image of God in man, which is contained in the striving for absolute, Divine freedom. Therefore, any attempts to absolutize earthly power, state, laws are anti-Christian in nature. True freedom is found only in the God-man, in the Risen Christ. In Him, Christians become absolutely free citizens of another "state" (), the Kingdom of God, in which there are no laws except one - the law of Love.

Yes, any absolutization or sacralization of statehood contradicts the meaning and spirit of Christianity (alas, this has often been forgotten in the history of Christianity!). But this does not diminish the relative value of the state with its laws. is present in this world, and His presence can be felt and known. In Scripture, such a tangible presence of God is called glory Of God. The shining of glory over the Old Testament tabernacle; the glory of God in a cloudy pillar leading Israel from Egyptian slavery to freedom; the glory that shone upon Jesus Christ at His transfiguration on Mount Tabor - in all this and in many other cases, we meet with the manifest presence of God in this world, the presence of the Helper and Patron saint. We glorify holy people, recognizing in them, in their personalities, in their deeds glory Of God, the presence of God. We testify to this symbolically, depicting the radiance of glory in the form of halos surrounding the heads of the saints. The Apostle Paul urges: "Glorify God in Your Body"(), that is, strive to show the world the presence of God, His glory in the Church, in yourself, in your words and deeds. This is the task of Christians in this world. But the same task of glorifying God, in principle, stands before human society in general, and before a society organized into a state, which, like any power, is a "servant of God", set by God for "good deeds," which has already been discussed speech above. Of course, it is difficult and even impossible to imagine a "Christian state". Only an individual with his free will can be a Christian. The body of Christ is the Church as a community of Christians who participate in God in Jesus Christ. But the state is not the Church. And, nevertheless, it has its eschatological limit, its task to be transformed into the Church, when the state itself and its necessity are abolished, when all leadership and all authority and power are abolished (). Therefore, a Christian has no right to ignore the state and his feasible participation in it. In an endless variety of peoples, eras and historical situations, in an endless variety of personal destinies, opportunities, gifts, public activities all Christians have one common task - to glorify God in grateful response to His saving gifts.