Methods and methods for collecting sociological information. Methods for collecting sociological information. Methods for collecting information in sociology

Method for analyzing documents.In the process of its social activity, people create a huge mass of documents, so documents are an important and significant source of primary sociological information. Documents are systematized on different grounds. According to the status, they are divided into official (government policies, contracts); Unofficial (letters, autobiography). In the form of presentation - textual (verbal); statistical; Symbolic. According to functional features - informative; Communicative; Valid oriented orientation. According to the method of fixation - written; iconographic (paintings, photos); phonetic (sound recording); audiovisual (film and video); Documents on technical (machine-readable) media. By the nature of the information - primary; Secondary (built on the basis of processing and generalization of primary documents).

Two types of document analysis are used in sociology - traditional analysis and content analysis. Traditional (qualitative) analysis - This is an analysis of the content of documents (facts, evaluations, the opinions contained in them. Traditional analysis is a rather time-consuming process that requires highly qualified researcher. On its basis it is impossible to process large arrays of documents. The method of analyzing documents is a systematic study of documents aimed at receiving information meaningful for research purposes

Documents simultaneously contain two kinds of information:

• information on facts, events, activities;

Sociological observation method - The method of collecting primary sociological information, carried out by direct perception and direct registration of events, meaningful in terms of research objectives. The key feature of the method is that there is a direct registration of events with an eyewitness.

Depending on the position of the observer, the following varieties of this method distinguish.

1. observations, in the course of which the observer does not enter into communication with the members of the group, and registers events as it were from. This is a simple observation;
2. the observer may partially enter into communication, the group's actions, consciously limiting contacts. This is an intermediate type of observation;
3. the included observation takes place when the observer is included in the actions of the group completely. Enabled Observation can be performed in an open way or incognito.

4. The self-observation of the observer registers the facts of its actions, states.

Pollization method It is a method of collecting social information about the object being studied during the direct or mediated communication of the sociologist (or interviewer) and the respondent (called respondent) by registering the respondents to the questions specified by the sociologist arising from the goals and objectives. Thus, the survey is a method based on a response situation. The main purpose of the method is to obtain information on the state of public, group, individual opinion, as well as information on the facts and events reflected in the consciousness of the respondent.

It must be borne in mind that the survey data in any case expresses only the subjective opinion of the respondents. The conclusions from the information obtained during the survey need to be compared with the data obtained by other methods that characterize the objective state of the studied phenomena.

Questioning

In the case of a questionnaire survey, the process of communication of the researcher with the respondent is mediated by the questionnaire. Conducts a survey. Its function is that, having received instructions from a sociologist, he behaves according to it, creating a positive motivation of the respondent in relation to the survey.

The main toolkit of the questionnaire is a questionnaire. The quality of the questionnaire largely determines the reliability, the accuracy of the results of the study. The sociological questionnaire is a joint system of issues aimed at identifying the characteristics of the object and the subject of analysis. There are certain rules and principles of the design of the questionnaire. Note that there are different types of questions that perform various features. Questions in the questionnate are formed into blocks, such as a block of questions about the objective characteristics of respondents.

Interview

The interview involves another type of contact of the sociologist with the respondent mediated by the interviewer. The role of the interviewer is at least the question of questionnaire issues.

Sociological experiment.The effective method of collecting primary sociological information is experiment . It allows you to get unique information, it is impossible to get other methods. In the experiment, a certain group is placed in an unusual experimental situation, that is, it is exposed to any factor in order to trace the direction, the magnitude and stability of the characteristic sociologist of the characteristics of interest.

Experiments in sociology can be classified. By the nature of the experimental situation, experiments may be: polesand laboratory.

A sociological experiment is a method of sociological knowledge, testing hypotheses by fixing and monitoring the state of a social object, changing under the influence of specially created conditions - introductory factors that allow you to observe, measure the components of phenomena, check the correctness of the provisions, to receive new knowledge.

The classic field sociological experiment is conducted under the leadership of E. Mayo of the famous research in 1924-1932 at the Hoshtornian enterprises near Chicago (USA).

When studying problems of applied sociology, it is necessary to remember that an empirical study is only a means designed to provide a factual base, the basis of theoretical search.

The collection of sociological information is an important step in any sociological research. However, since social processes and phenomena are complex, multivariates, the forms of their manifestation are diverse, the possibility of objective study of social phenomena and obtaining relevant results is largely due to the reliability and quality of the collected material.

Sociological information – Data, information on social phenomena and processes that were obtained during a sociological study, as well as a sociologist obtained from various sources of both objective and subjective nature. The features of such information is that she:

• reflects the behavior and consciousness of people united in social groups;
• Its defined part is created "according to the plan" of the researcher, it may affect such problems that the respondent has not thought about, because it was not directly faced or not paid attention to them.

Distinguish primary and secondary sociological information.

Primary sociological information - These are the necessary information in various shapes (for example, answers to questionnaire questions, interviews, document analysis, etc.) on sociological research facilities that can be obtained using various methods of collecting information, as well as from documents. It is subject to further processing and generalization, since it is not adapted for direct use.

Secondary sociological information - Already processed, generalized, convenient for use in scientific research and management, it allows you to draw conclusions and develop the necessary events.

As a result of a sociological study, higher level information can be obtained: theoretical concepts, conclusions and regulations, information that can be actively used by people in their practical activity. The effectiveness of measures based on the conclusions of sociological studies is largely depends on the quality of the collected sociological information. It can have both objective parameters and subjective, which depend on the purpose of the study. Therefore, the same information may have a different value.

In a compressed, concise form, basic requirements for primary sociological information can be reduced to its completeness, representativeness (representativeness), reliability, reliability, validity. Obtaining such information is one of the reliable guarantees of truth, evidence, the validity of the findings obtained during the study.

Reliability of sociological information - This is a property that shows the degree of adequate reflection of the peculiarities of the social phenomena and processes.

Representativeness It is possible to determine as the property of a selective set to represent the parameters of the general population, meaningful in terms of the objectives of the study. To obtain such information, specific methods of its collection are needed.

The main methods for collecting primary sociological information applicable during research are:

• analysis of documents;
• observations;
• various types of polls;
• experiment.

Any sociological research implies a collection, study and analysis of documents. The circle of documents reflecting the various sides of public life is so wide that any empirical sociological research should begin with the analysis of the documents available on the problem of interest.

Document - This is an ordered social information, specially fixed on any carrier (paper, film, magnetic film, etc.). Documents fix and reflect different sides and stages of activity of almost all social groups, their relationship, they help to establish group norms and values. Any group, the element of the structure of society to a greater or lesser extent declared a part of the relationship documented. For example, for parties, unions are charters, programs, protocols. For small cells - Department, Brigades - certain provisions on the department, orders to create it, staffing, etc.

Poll as a method for collecting primary sociological information

Method survey It is the most common method of collecting primary sociological information. Its popularity can be explained by the fact that the verbal information obtained by this method is easier to quantify than non-verbal.

The survey can be defined as a method of direct or indirect collecting primary verbal information.

In modern applied sociology, surveys are classified on various reasons. Bythe nature of the relationship between the sociologist and the respondent Polls are divided into absentee-questionnaire and full-time interviews. Bythe degree of formalization - on standardized (conducted on a pre-prepared plan) and non-standardized (free). In the frequency of surveys, they are divided into disposable and reusable. The virtues of the survey method include: a) its versatility, allowing to receive information on any occasion, in any branches of physical culture (physical recreation, rehabilitation, sports, physical education); b) the possibility of studying the inner world of man; c) data representative; d) faster results (compared to the observation method).

The use of this method is more fruitful if the sociologist takes into account personal characteristics, and, above all, the socio-psychological characteristics of respondents. Such properties of a person as the floor, age, profession, the worldview of the respondent largely determine the answers to the questions set in the questionnaire. Specific survey is an expert survey.

Questioning

One of the most common, most popular survey species is the questionnaire.

Ankrug survey - This is a type of survey, over which the researcher loses control at the time of distribution or distribution of questionnaires or questionnaires. The main components of the questionnaire are: sociologist, questionnaire (or questionnaire) and respondent.

In the practice of physical culture and sports, a survey survey is applied to identify interests and needs in exercise classes, conditions that impede and intensify these classes, identifying opinions on the meaning and role of physical culture, healthy lifestyle, etc.

Ankrug survey can be group or individual.

Groupa questionnaire survey is widely used in the field of physical culture at the place of study of schoolchildren, students and students, in physical and wellness groups and sports teams. Questionnaires are distributed to fill in an educational audience or at the place of classes. Usually, the iconer works with a group of 15-20 people. An important positive point is that a 100% return of the questionnaire is ensured, as well as the fact that respondents can receive information on the filling technique.

When conducting individual survey, there is a distribution of the questionnaire to each respondent at the place of residence, study or work.

When conducting a survey, you must follow a certain procedure:

1. Creation of the necessary optimal conditions for conducting a survey (seats, presence of pens, pencils, etc.)

2. Accurate and capacious explanation of the goals and objectives of the survey, filling techniques.

3. Exception of external negative factors (presence of unauthorized persons, poor lighting, etc.)

Interviewing As a type of survey, in modern sociological studies, gained widespread and is the direct contact of the subject with the respondent. At the same time, the respondent verbally answers the questions asked by the interviewer.

Interview is one of the main types of survey that uses the immediate socio-psychological interaction between the researcher and the respondent in accordance with the goal.

The scope of application of this method is extremely extensive and diverse: the interview is actively used in sociology, psychology, pedagogy and other areas of activity. Not exception is physical culture. In this case, the interview is applied to obtain information on the value orientations of respondents relative to physical culture, their views, and the interests of this field of activity. Of particular value is information about the reasons for a negative attitude towards exercise.

Interview as a method for collecting sociological information has a number of advantages, the basis of which is, first of all, the possibility of deeper penetration into the socio-psychological mechanisms of the processes under study by obtaining comprehensive information on opinions, the motives of the behavior, the submission of respondents. This is due to the fact that in an interview, how two methods are combined: a survey and observation. Their combination allows the interviewer to observe the respondent's psychological reactions and, if necessary, adjust the conversation plan.

The following feature causes other positive parties to the interview: a) the presence of feedback between the object and the subject, which allows some diversity of the line of behavior of the latter during interviews; b) ensuring maximum full responses of respondents (in the questionnaire, individual issues can be missed); c) obtaining more specific and figurative information; d) the possibility of creating a relaxed environment when conversation; The ability to establish a greater degree of sincerity of answers.

By form Interviews are divided into two groups: free (non-standardized) and standardized (formalized).

Free The interview is the character of a relaxed conversation, when neither the wording, sequence, number of questions nor the proposed answers, is not defined in advance. Such conversations are appropriate at the stage of intelligence, clarify the problem.

Formalized The interview involves the active development of the entire survey procedure (definition of a common conversation plan, the sequence of questions, options offered). This interviews, depending on the purpose of its conduct, are divided into: a) clinical - long, deep-maintenance; b) focused - short-term. The goal of a clinical interview is to get more complete and reliable information about internal motivations, motives, the inclined respondents. The goal of focused is to extract information about a specific problem, process or phenomenon.

By type of respondents Interviews are: a) with an official; b) with an expert; c) with an ordinary respondent.

By method of communication between the researcher and the respondent Interviews are divided into: a) obvious (face to face); b) hidden (phones, over the Internet ").

Interviews are also divided bytechnology registration of answers - on the protochangeable and unpopularized.

Along with the positive characteristics, interviewing has a number of problems in collecting sociological information. Here are some difficulties arising from interviewing:

1. Search for psychological contact with each respondent;

2. Significant time costs;

3. The laboriousness of the training of interviews;

4. Solving anonymity problem.

Describing various sides of the interview as a research method, it is necessary to emphasize that the knowledge of it will be far from complete, if the interviewiir characteristic and the basic requirements for its professional characteristics are given. It is necessary to take into account the following of them:

1) possession of a high degree of communicability;

2) sufficient degree of erudition;

3) the ability to like others;

4) professionally understand the problem of interview;

5) Being psychologically stable from the influence of interviewed.

One of the basic conditions affecting reliable information in an interview is the availability of a qualitative composed questionnaire. Under the questionnaire in sociology it is understood as a document in which the relevant sample is supplied and grouped questions on the topic and there is a place to record responses to them. The questionnaire indicates the name of the interviewius, the subject of interviews, the venue, the respondent's attitude to the conversation, the duration of the conversation, questions and answers to them, some social-demographic data about the respondent.

Drawing up a questionnaire begins with the study of the problem, object and subject matter. Usually this document is the unity of the introductory, main and demographic parts.

A characteristic feature of the questionnaires is the presence of blocks of questions, the need for which is due to the unambiguous understanding of the key issue, the detail of the development of the problem under study.

Special survey isexpert survey. To this type of survey, sociologists appeal if you need to verify the information received, professional assessment of the processes under study or phenomena, comparing views and ideas on the problem. In the field of physical culture and sports by experts, teachers of physical culture are most often performed, trainers by sports, teachers of universities, scientists, practical workers in the organization, management and management of physical culture and sports.

One of the main problems of expert surveys is the problem of selection of experts. The most common method of selection of experts are: documentary (based on the study of characteristics, recommendations), testing method (conducting a number of tests for professionalism), self-esteem method, the method of mutualization.

· Form (open and closed, straight and indirect);

A closed question is called the one in which a complete set of answers options is given. Types of such a question - alternative and non-realty. An alternative question implies the opportunity to choose the respondent of just one answer. Unauthorized issues allow the respondent of several options for answers.

Open questions do not contain prompts and do not impose respondment options to respondents. Open questions make it possible to express opinions in the entire fullness and the smallest details. It is with the help of such issues that the most complete information can be collected than when using closed issues.

When Questionnaire Questions require a critical attitude to themselves to them, surrounding people, assessing negative phenomena, the researcher applies questions in indirect form. When designing such issues, they proceed from the assumption that respondents rely on their own experience, however, they report it in indifferent form, which removes the sharpness of critical assessments characteristic of the statements from the first person.

· For functions (basic and non-core)

The main questionnaire questions are aimed at collecting information on the content of the studied phenomenon. More abundant - to identify the addressee of the main question (questions filters), checking the sincerity of the answers (control issues).

1.2 Postal Poll

Postal survey is a type of survey. It is legitimate to consider as an effective acceptance of the acquisition of primary information. In the most general form, it consists in mailing a questionnaire and receiving postal answers to them. The important advantage of the postal survey is the simplicity of the organization. The advantages of the method include the fact that it allows you to simultaneously conduct a survey on a large area, including in hard-to-reach areas. Another advantage of the information being taken under consideration is that the questionnaire is filled only by the respondent. Thereby there is no contact of the respondent and the questionnair, and therefore the psychological barrier observed sometimes with an individual survey.

Also a positive property of the postal survey is the ability of the respondent to choose a convenient time for it to fill the questionnaire.

Disadvantages of the postal survey - incomplete return of the questionnaire.

Start a survey with light questions interesting in content. Close questions about the content form form in blocks. There is some negative connection between the volume of the questionnaire and the level of their return. Nevertheless, it is more expedient to increase the interest of the questioned to the questionnaire by using a number of additional questions, rather than reducing it. It is recommended to print a questionnaire in printing houses, use attractive name and design.

Simultaneously with the sending of the questionnaire, the accompanying letter is sent in the same envelope, where, referring to the respondent by name and patronymic or last name, repeat the request for participation in the postal survey, detail the objectives of the study, emphasize its practical orientation, lead the address and telephone of the research organization. Together with the questionnaire, they also send an envelope with the return address printed on it, in it the respondent will return the recipient's completed questionnace.

About 2-3 weeks after sending the questionnaires sent reminders.

1.3Press survey

A variety of postal survey - press survey. In this case, the profile is printed in a newspaper or magazine. We indicate two types of such a survey. One - when the editors appeals to the questionnaire in order to obtain data on its readers and their opinions about the work of this printed organ. The second is when the opinion on any relevant problem is being studied through the printed organ.

Due to the passivity of the procedure for the involvement of potential respondents in a survey in the press questioning a low return questionnaire.

Decisive factors for the formation of the final selective aggregate, that is, the array of the respondent, with which the sociologist has a business, is the subject of research, design and registration of the press questionnaire, the specificity of the temporary moment of publication.

1.4 Interview

Another type of survey method is an interview.

When interviewing, the contact between the researcher and the respondent is carried out with the help of an interviewer who asks the questions provided for by the researcher, organizes and sends a conversation with each individual and records the answers received according to the instructions.

To obtain the same amount of information in the study of the interview method, the researcher must spend more time and means than when questioning.

In applied sociology distinguish three types of interviews:

· Foreign;

In this case, the communication of the interviewer and the respondent is strictly regulated by the developed questionnaire and instructions for the interviewer. Usually the closed questions are dominated. In an interview with open issues there is a slightly lower degree of standardization of the respondent's behavior and the interviewer.

· Focused;

Its aim of collecting opinions, evaluations about a particular situation, phenomena, consequences, reasons. Respondents introduce in advance with the subject of the conversation.

· Free.

It is applied in cases where the researcher only proceeds to determine the problem of the study, clarifies its specific content. Free interview is carried out without a predetermined questionnaire or developed a conversation plan. Groups of respondents are usually small, their answers are fixed with maximum accuracy.

Chapter 2. Observation Method

If the data on the test process, the activities of individuals, the group, the team should be as "purified" from the rational, emotional and other properties of the respondent, then they are resorting to such information as observation.

The most important advantage of observation is that it is carried out simultaneously with the development of studied phenomena, processes. It is possible to directly perceive the behavior of people in specific conditions and in real time.

The disadvantages of the method are reduced to two groups:

· Objective (independent observer);

This includes primarily limited, fundamentally private character of each observed situation. Therefore, conclusions can be generalized and distributed to wider situations only with caution and subject to many requirements. We also note the high complexity of the method. Execution of observation often involves participation in collecting primary information of a large number of people highly high qualifications.

· Subjective (associated with personal, professional characteristics of the observer).

The quality of primary information may affect the difference in the social position of the observer and the observed, lack of interest to their interests, value orientations, stereotypes of behavior, and so on. Also, the quality of information also affects the installation of the observed and observer. If the observed knows that they are an object of study, they can artificially change the nature of their actions, adjusting to the fact that, in their opinion, I would like to see the observer. In turn, the presence of a certain expectation in the observer regarding the behavior of the observed can form a specific point of view on what is happening.

There is an exemplary list of significant elements peculiar to all observed situations. In support, the program and the scientific and organizational plan of observation are specified. This list includes:

a) observable - the number of people participating in the situation, the socio-demographic structure of the group, the nature of relationships in it, the distribution of roles between the participants of the situation;

b) the situation is the location of the observable situation, social behavior typical of this place, possible deviations in the behavior of the participants in the observed group;

c) the goal of the Group's activities - random or naturally observed situation, the presence of certain formal or informal purposes, for which the group gathered; compatible or opposite the goals of various participants in the situation;

(d) Social behavior - the nature of the activities of the observed group, incentives of activity, to whom (which) activities are aimed at activities, a psychological atmosphere in the group;

e) frequency and duration - time, duration and repeatability of the observed situation, its uniqueness or typical.

Rubric Record navigation

Methods for collecting sociological information.

1) The most common method of collecting sociological information is a survey. There are several survey species, first of all survey and interviewing.

Questioning. Ensures independent filling in the questionnaire to respondents. It is possible individual and group surveys, full-time and absentee. An example of absentee questionnaire is a postal survey or a survey through a newspaper. An important point in the preparation of research and collecting information is to develop a toolkit: questionnaire, blank interviews, accounting cards, observation diaries, etc. As the questionnaire is the most common method of collecting sociological information, we will dwell on it in more detail. What is the questionnaire and what are the requirements for it?

The sociological questionnaire is a combined system of issues aimed at identifying the quantitative and qualitative characteristics of the research object. Compilation of the questionnaire is a complex, time consuming, requiring certain professional skills. Only following certain requirements in its preparation, it is possible to obtain objective quantitative and high-quality characteristics of the research object.

• 1) All questions in the questionnaire should clearly formulate that they are understandable to respondents, including the terms used. (For example, you can not ask the ordinary citizen: "How do you feel about GMO in baby food?")
• 2) questions should not exceed the possibility of memory and competence of respondents; Call negative emotions and touching the respondents' pride. (For example: "Why don't you cope with the given task?")
• 3) The question should not impose the opinion of the sociologist (for example: "Most Kirovitsa opposes renaming Kirov in Vyatka, how do you feel about this?")
• 4) The question should not contain two questions. (For example: "Will you take a loan in a bank and in debt among acquaintances, if you find out that you have the opportunity to buy a good car at a very low price, but now you have no money?")
• 5) If the questionnaire includes a significant amount of questions, they are grouped by thematic blocks. (For example, about feelings, about ordinary actions, plans for the future)

You can characterize several groups of questions.

1. Questions that differ in the form:

the questions are closed (to which the list of answers options is given);

open (to which the answer options are not attached. The respondent should formulate and enter the answer);

semi-open (in which the possibility of choosing the proposed answer options with the possibility is also free to formulate and enter the answer). The latter are used by the researcher when he is not confident in the completeness of the answers known to him.

Closed questions may also be alternative and non-realative.

Alternative closed questions suggest the possibility of choosing the respondent of only one answer option. For example: Yes, participate; No, do not participate.

Unauthorized closed questions suggest a choice of one or more answer options. For example: "What sources do you get political information - television, radio, newspapers, work colleagues, friends?"

3. There are questions direct and indirect. Direct questions are those who require a critical attitude towards themselves to others.

In indirect matters, the need for a critical attitude towards himself or close people is overcome. An example of a direct question: "What prevents you from learning well?" An example of an indirect question: "When you hear the reproach to the student's address, that he learns poorly, you think ..."

4. Questions in their functions are divided into basic and non-core.

The main questions are aimed at collecting information on the content of the investigated phenomenon.

Neostny questions are aimed at finding a recipient of the main issues. Neostarind include filters and control questions. (Questions traps)

Filters are used when it is necessary to obtain data characterizing not the entire set of respondents, but only its part. For example, first find out whether the respondent smokes, and then a number of questions are set only for those who smoke. The first question in this case will be a filter question. Trap control questions are used to test the sincerity of the answers. ("Did you read this book?" - and the name of the non-existent book) is given)

When conducting a survey, a composite building of the questionnaire has a certain value. The first part of the questionnaire contains an appeal to the respondent, where the goals and objectives of the study clearly set out, the procedure for filling the questionnaire is explained. This part is called a cap of the questionnaire. It should not be long - optimally - several sentences, but must explain to the respondent who conducts a survey, the purpose of the survey, keep an explanation of the regulations of the questionnaire, emphasize the importance of the opinion of each respondent to solve the problem that is studied in this survey. If the survey is anonymous, then it is necessarily reported to the respondent in the header of the questionnaire. The second part of the questionnaire contains questions. And at the beginning there are simple questions, then more complex and at the end again light questions. It provides better susceptibility.

At the end of the questionnaire, as a rule, there is a "passport" and gratitude to the respondent for his work to fill the questionnaire.

The following questionnaire is given below. Despite the seeming simplicity, its correct preparation is difficult. The quality of the answers and the results obtained depends on this. Try to make a similar questionnaire.

Dear student!

The laboratory of "Mass Communication Tools" Vyatga conducts a survey in order to identify the ideas of students about their future. Such data is necessary to verify the medium-term forecasts of the country's demographic development. Questions of the questionnaire concern your ideas about themselves in the future, so when choosing an answer, we ask you to be guided by the most likely, from your point of view at the moment, an option for developing events, taking into account your personal features and the normal development of your further life situation.

The profile is anonymous, the data will be used in generalized.

Imagine after about 40 years ... in the 2050s ...

1. What do you think, what professions will be the most profitable, income in the 2050s.? (Select no more than 3 professions)

• 2. What do you think at the end of the work career you will work for the same specialty (not the position, namely specialty), as at the beginning of the employment path? (Choose one option)
• 1) by the same specialty
• 2) will have to change the specialty
• 3) I find it difficult to answer
• 3. What do you think, where will you live in 2050? (Choose one option)
• 1) in Russia in the same area
• 2) in Russia, but in another region
• 3) abroad
• 4) in the territory that is now belonging to our country, but by 2050, it will not be Russia
• 5) I find it difficult to answer
• 6) Other (write)
• 4. In which direction will the political life of Russia in 2050 will develop? (Choose one option)
• 1) the formation of authoritarianism, dictatorship
• 2) the growing of chaos, anarchy, threat, state. Coup
• 3) Development of democracy
• 4) Other (write)
• 5. How much would you like to have children? (Choose one option)
• 1) 1 child
• 2) 2 children
• 3) 3 baby and more
• 4) I want to have children
• 5) I find it difficult to answer
• 6. Do you have a spouse (spouse) when you will be in old age? (Choose one option)
• 1) Yes, and one all life
• 2) Yes, but it will not be the first spouse (spouse)
• 3) there will be a relationship, but not official
• 4) No, I will be one (without spouse / spouse)
• 5) I find it difficult to answer
• 7. What are you currently evaluating your health? Rate on a 10-point scale (circle the figure that most matches your health level)

8. From what age, in your opinion, a person can be considered an elderly? (Write)

Please a few words about yourself

• 9. Your floor
• 1) Male
• 2) Female
• 10. Faculty ________________________________
• 11. Course __________________________________

Thanks for participating!

Interviewing is a personal communication of a sociologist with the respondent, when he asks questions and records the responses of the respondent.

There are several interviewing varieties: direct (when sociologist directly talks to the respondent); indirect (conversation by phone); formalized (a questionnaire is being developed in advance); Focused (a concrete phenomenon is put in the center of attention); Free interview (free conversation without a predetermined theme, allows you to see priorities in the lifestyle of a person, does not push him on the answers).

2) An important type of information collection is sociological observation. This is a targeted, systematic perception of any phenomenon, followed by fixing the results on the form or in the observation diary with the help of film, photo or voice recorder. Observation allows you to get a "slice" knowledge about the observed phenomenon or process in its dynamics, it allows you to "grab" a living life. As a result, interesting materials are obtained. Observation may be different: non-structuralized (when there is no detailed observation plan, only common features of the situation are identified); structuralized (there is a detailed observation plan, instruction, there is sufficient information about the object); System, non-system.

Interesting results can be obtained when the observation is enabled when the researcher works or lives together with the group studied. This is a field work, where the study is carried out in natural conditions, in contrast to the laboratory (with the creation of certain conditions). In such cases, the sociologist acts as a "mandatory duck", it is introduced into the life of informants (the working team, family, a group of homeless, drug addicts, etc.) and observes the situation "as if from the inside." At the same time, those for whom he observes, behave naturally and "give out" such data that is difficult, and sometimes it is impossible to get other methods. Of course, this method is spent in time and on material resources (its necessity is determined by the Customer, respectively, it is also paid). In addition, the "exit from the field" becomes often dangerous from different points of view. It is desirable that it be natural to informant and not injuring for the researcher himself, because there are ethical problems here (say or not to say that observation was conducted, to issue or not to the customer and the public, one or another, sometimes shocking information or a secret).

3) Content analysis (English. Content Analysis; from Content - Content) - a formalized method for studying textual and graphic information, which consists in translation of the information being studied in quantitative indicators and its statistical processing. It is characterized by a big rigor, systematic.

The essence of the content analysis method consists in fixing certain content units, which is studied, as well as in the quantification of the data obtained. The content of the content analysis can be the content of various prints, radio and television shows, movies, promotional messages, documents, public speeches, questionnaires.

Content analysis began to be used in social sciences since the 30s of the 20th century. in USA. For the first time this method was applied in journalism and literary studies. The main procedures of content analysis were developed by American sociologists Harold Lassowel and B. Berson.

G. Lassowell used him in the late 1930s for research on politics and propaganda. Lassuel upgraded the content analysis, introduced new categories and procedures, a particular importance attached to data quantification.

The development of mass communication has caused an increase in content-analytical studies in this area. During World War II, the Content Analysis was applied by some government agencies in the United States and England to study the effectiveness of propaganda in different countries, as well as in intelligence purposes.

The accumulated experience of content-analytical research was summed up in the book B. Berson "Content-Analysis in Communication Research" (beginning of the 50s). The author was determined by the content analysis method, as well as different types, criteria and units for a quantitative study. B. Berlson's book is still a fundamental description that gives an understanding of the main provisions of content analysis.

Currently, the main content analysis procedures include:

• 1. Detection of semantic units of content analysis, which can be:
  • a) concepts expressed in separate terms;
  • b) themes expressed in entire semantic paragraphs, parts of texts, articles, radio broadcasts ...
  • c) names, surnames of people;
  • d) events, facts, etc.;
  • e) the meaning of appeals to a potential addressee.

Content analysis units are allocated depending on the content, objectives, tasks and hypotheses of a particular study.

• 2. Allocation of invoices that may coincide or not to coincide with units of analysis. In the 1st case, the procedure is reduced to counting the frequency of mentioning the selected semantic unit, in a 2nd - researcher on the basis of the analyzed material and common sense, the units of the account that can be:
  • a) physical length of texts;
  • b) text area filled with semantic units;
  • c) the number of rows (paragraphs, signs, columns of text);
  • d) broadcast time on radio or TV;
  • e) a film of the film with audio and video recordings,
  • e) the number of drawings with a certain content, plot, etc.
• 3. The calculation procedure is generally similar to standard methods of classification by dedicated groupings. The preparation of special tables is applied, the use of computer programs, special formulas (eg, "The formula for evaluating the specific gravity of semantic categories in the total text"), statistical calculations of the comprehension and caused by the reaction to the text.

The content analysis method is widely used as a method in sociology when analyzing responses to open questions, observation materials, for analyzing results in the focus group method. Such methods are also used in studies of attention to the problem of interest to the customer in the means of mass communications, in marketing and many other studies. Content analysis can be used to study most of the documentary sources, but it works best with a relatively large number of single-order data.

It is possible to allocate the main areas of application of content analysis in social and psychological studies:

• - studying through the content of reports of the socio-psychological characteristics of their authors (communicators);
• - studying through the content of reports of the socio-psychological specifics of various means of communication, as well as the features of the forms and techniques of organization of content, in particular, propaganda;
• - Studying through the content of reports of information on people who are perceived;
• - Studying through the content of communications success reports.

Not all documents can be the object of content analysis. It is necessary that the content under study allowed to specify the unambiguous rule for reliable fixation of the desired characteristics (the principle of formalization), as well as that the elements of interest to the researchers are met with a sufficient frequency (the principle of statistical significance). Most often, reports of printing, radio, television, protocols, letters, letters, orders, orders, etc., as well as data of free interviews and open question questions are reported as objects of studying content analysis. The main directions of application of content analysis: identifying that there existed before the text and that in one way or another received reflection in it (text as an indicator of certain sides of the object being studied - ambient reality, author or addressee); The determination that exists only in the text as such (various form characteristics - language, structure, message genre, rhythm, and speech tone); identifying what will exist after the text, i.e. After his perception of the addressee (evaluation of various effects of impact).

In the development and practical application of content analysis, several stages are distinguished. After the topic, tasks and hypothesis of the study are formulated, the analysis categories are determined - the most common, key concepts corresponding to research tasks. The category system plays the role of questions in the questionnaire and indicates which responses should be found in the text. In the practice of domestic content analysis, a rather stable system of categories - a sign, goal, values, theme, hero, author, genre, etc. The content-analysis of media reports, based on a paradigmatic approach, is increasingly widely distributed, in accordance with which The studied signs of texts (the content of the problem, the causes of its occurrence, the problem-forming subject, the degree of tension of the problem, the ways to solve it, etc.) are considered as a certainly organized structure that meets policies and missions of publishing / television channel / radio station / site, etc. After the categories are formulated, it is necessary to select an appropriate analysis unit - a linguistic unit of speech or content element that serve in the text indicator of the investigator of the phenomenon. In the practice of domestic content-analytical studies, the most commonly intelligent analysis units are the word, a simple sentence, a judgment, theme, author, hero, social situation, the message in general, etc. The complex types of content analysis usually operate not alone, but by several units of analysis. Analysis units taken isolated may not always be correctly interpreted, so they are considered against the background of broader linguistic or substantive structures indicating the nature of the text partition, within which the presence or absence of units of analysis is identified - contextual units. For example, for a single analysis unit, the contextual unit is "offer". Finally, it is necessary to establish a unit of the account - the quantitative measure of the relationship of text and uniform phenomena. These are the most common accounts such as time-space (number of lines, area in square centimeters, minutes, broadcast time, etc.), the appearance of signs in the text, the frequency of their appearance (intensity).

It is important to choose the necessary sources subjected to content analysis. The sample problem contains the selection of the source, the number of messages, the dates of the message and the content under study. All these sample parameters are determined by the tasks and scales of the study. Bowl of all content analysis is carried out on a one-year sample: if it is a study of meeting protocols, then enough 12 protocols (by number of months), if the study of media messages - 12--16 newspaper numbers or television, radio. Typically, the selection of media messages is 200--600 texts.

A prerequisite is the development of the content analysis table - the main working document, with which the study is carried out. Table type is determined by the study step. For example, developing a categorical apparatus, an analyst is a table representing a system of coordinated and subordinated categories of analysis. Such a table seems to see the questionnaire: each category (question) involves a number of features (responses) for which the text content is quantified. To register units of analysis, another table is compiled - an encoded matrix. If the size of the sample is quite large (over 100 units), the encoder, as a rule, works with a notebook of such matrix sheets. If the sample is small (up to 100 units), then you can conduct a two-dimensional or multi-dimensional analysis. In this case, for each text there must be its own encoding matrix. This work is laborious and painstaking, so with large volumes of sampling, the comparison of the tests of interest to the researcher is carried out on the computer.

4) Focus Group Method. The focus group is a group interview conducted by the moderator in the form of a group discussion on a predetermined scenario with a small group of "typical" representatives of the part of the population similar to the main social characteristics.

Distinctive features of the focus group takes place in the form of a group discussion of the research researcher; During this discussion, the Participants of the Group, not compounded by the standard interview, can freely communicate with each other and express their feelings and emotions.

Technology. To participate in the focus group, 6-12 people are selected - the most "typical" representatives of the people of interest to the researcher are homogeneous in their demographic and socio-economic characteristics, as well as on the life experience and interest in the matter studied. For one-bed and three hours, the prepared presenter (moderator) manages the conversation, which passes quite freely, but according to a specific scheme (Topic Guide, prepared before the start of the discussion). The focus group usually passes in a specially equipped room with a one-sided mirror (due to which the customer's representatives can monitor the focus group, without issuing their presence), recruited participants and moderator are located behind the round table, for a full visual contact. All what is happening is recorded on video and audio. The average duration of the focus group is 1 - 1.5 hours.

After the discussion is completed, the audio and video recordings are analyzed and a report is drawn up. As a rule, within the framework of one study, 3-4 focus groups are carried out.

The focus group holds a qualified specialist - it is called the group moderator, whose task is to understand the attitude of the focus group participants to the issues discussed. It must have a group management skills, as well as general knowledge in the field of psychology and marketing.

Application of the Focus Group method:

• - generation of new ideas (development of new goods / services, packaging, advertising, etc.);
• - study of the conversational dictionaries of consumers and the characteristics of their perception (for compiling the questionnaire, the development of advertising text);
• - evaluation of new products, advertising, packaging, image image, etc.;
• - obtaining preliminary information on the topic of interest (before determining the specific objectives of the marketing research);
• - clarification of data obtained during a quantitative study;
• - Acquaintance with consumer requests and their motives.

The advantages of focus groups can be attributed:

• - the maximum opportunity for free generation of new ideas;
• - a variety of directions for using this method;
• - the ability to learn respondents who are not amenable to studying in a more formal situation;
• - The ability for the customer to take part at all stages of the study.

Restrictions on the focus of groups:

• 1) In one focus group should not be familiar before that with each other of people.
• 2) Focus group respondents should be approximately the same living standards and status.
• 3) Before the focus group, they do not communicate a specific topic of the conversation during the recruiting of the respondents (the narrowings of the participants should not be prepared in advance, people must "issue" spontaneous answers).
• 4) The moderator does not allow the dominance of one participant in the focus group, forms the inclusion of each into a polylog.
• 5) The moderator mainly sets the tone of "brainstorming", i.e. Models the situation of avoiding acute disputes and with different opinions everyone has the same importance. The principle is not "on the contrary, incorrectly," but "this position is still possible."
• 6) Experiments in sociology is a field work, where research is carried out in laboratory conditions (defined parameters are set) in order to test any social hypothesis, test a new project, etc.

The most famous in sociology are Stanford Prison Experiment and experiments Stanley Milgrim.

Standford experiment allowed scientists to answer a few questions: can a decent person make an evil that can make him go for it, and does it depend on the situation in which he found himself? Do human behavior define situations? Can a person bother in some role if it is approved by authoritations over? The experiment was initiated in 1971 by the famous American social psychologist Philip Zimbardo. Initially, his goal was quite simple - it was necessary to understand where conflicts arise in correctional institutions during the marines. The essence of the experiment was that 24 young people were selected (they were mainly college students) who had to fully immerse themselves in prison life. Every day, each of them received 15 dollars (today, taking into account inflation, it will be about 100 dollars). At the same time, not just young people were selected, but also healthy enough from a physical and psychological point of view. Half should have played the role of prisoners, and the other is supervised. The division on the jailers and prisoners was carried out with the help of a coin (someone as lucky). All participants in the experiment were people who are customary to the middle class. None of them was a real criminal. Simple people. How we are with you.

The prison itself was equipped directly at the Department of Stanford University.

Before the start of the experiment, a group of young people who had to depict prisoners were simply sent home. They did not need to prepare for nothing - just wait when they were notifying about the start of the experiment and will be invited to participate in it. But with the jailers, a whole briefing was held, during which they were told about what would have to do - it was necessary to create a sense of fear, longing, to make sure that they were completely in the power of the system. It was necessary to make it so that they felt that they were not dominated. At the same time, the guards received a special uniform and dark glasses. Although at the same time resort to frank violence, of course, it was prohibited.

A few days after that, all the participants in the experiment depicted prisoners were formally detained and brought to prison. They were issued fairly uncomfortable clothing, which prevented comfortably move (it was one of the most important moments at the initial stage, which prevented people in orientation). Naturally, this experiment is unlikely to become famous if it had not happened unexpected - he quickly left under control. After a couple of days after the start of the "jailers" began to mock the "prisoners". Prisoners even organized a certain riot, which was quickly suppressed. Further more interesting - "jailers" began to engage in frank sadism. They forced prisoners to wash the toilets with their bare hands, closed in the closet, strained their physical exercises, were practically not allowed to wash, they tried to even organize scuffle between prisoners. All this led to the fact that the emotional state of "prisoners" began to deteriorate rapidly. Even Zimbardo did not expect that the "jailers" (ordinary people, and not any marginals) will behave in this way.

In general, already "prisoners" were completely suppressed psychologically. At the time, each third guard was noticed by truly sadistic inclinations. It is especially interesting here that they were especially manifested at night. Why? It is difficult to answer, considering that the cameras were watching the experiment around the clock. Perhaps some darkness contributed to this.

Stanford prison experiment was interrupted after 6 days after the start, although it was designed for 2 weeks. At the same time, two prisoners were replaced even earlier, since their psychological state was simply depressing. Interestingly, many "jailers" were extremely upset by the fact that the experiment was completed.

What can I say in the end? This experiment showed how social roles act on people. The "jailers" behaved terrible, but none of them protested during the experiment, but continued to perform his work.

Their role justified this. They should have behaved. In addition, it was supported over. And the situation of people did not really worry. From the experiment, you can make several conclusions important for management:

The behavior of people is often determined by the roles they play; - people will submore will perform duties assigned to them if there is an approval of more than, for example, by society; - power of authorities. In this case, the professor who has arranged an experiment;

It's the most important. Take care of your daily life to find similar models. They are necessarily present in one way or another. Perhaps, understanding them, you can manage much more efficiently to manage, both your behavior and people in your team.

The impact of the authority makes sense to read about another interesting experiment, which was arranged by Professor Stanley Milgram. The experiment of the walls of Milgrim (English) is a classic experiment, first described in 1963, and later in the book "Submission to authority: Experimental study" in 1974

In his experiment, Milgram tried to clarify the question: how many sufferings are ready to cause ordinary people to other, completely innocent people, if such causing pain enters their working responsibilities? It was demonstrated in the inability of the subjects to openly resist the "boss" (in this case, the researcher dressed in a laboratory bathrobe), which ordered them to fulfill the task, despite the strong suffering caused by another participant in the experiment (in reality by a subsoil actor). The results of the experiment showed that the need for obedience to authorities was rooted in our consciousness so deeply that the subjects continued to perform instructions, despite the moral suffering and a strong internal conflict.

Prehistory. In fact, Milgram began his own research to clarify the question of how German citizens during the Nazi domination could participate in the destruction of millions of innocent people in concentration camps. "I found so much obedience," Milgram said, "I don't see the need to spend this experiment in Germany." Subsequently, the experiment Milgram was still repeated in Holland, Germany, Spain, Italy, Austria and Jordan, and the results turned out to be the same as in America.

Description of the experiment. This experiment was presented to participants as a study of the effect of memory pain. Experimentator, subject and actor, who played the role of another subject participated in the experience. It was stated that one of the participants ("student") must memorize couples from a long list, until he remembers each pair, and the other ("teacher") - to check the memory of the first and punish it for each error, an increasingly powerful electric discharge.

At the beginning of the experiment, the role of the teacher and the student was distributed between the test and actor "on the lot" with the help of folded sheets of paper with the words "teacher" and "student", and the test of the teacher always got the test. After that, the "student" tied to the chair with electrodes. As a "student" and "teacher" received a "demonstration" stress of 45 V.

"Teacher" went to another room, started to give "student" simple tasks for memorization and with each mistake "student" pressed the button, allegedly punishing the "student" of the current (actually the actor, playing a "student", only made the view, What gets blows). Starting from 45 V, "Teacher" with each new mistake was to increase the voltage at 15 in up to 450 V.

At the "150 volt" actor, the "student" began to demand to stop the experiment, but the experimenter spoke to the "teacher": "The experiment must continue. Please continue. " As the voltage increases the actor played more and more voluntary discomfort, then severe pain, and finally, the experiment stopped. If the subject showed oscillations, the experimenter assured him that it takes full responsibility for both the experiment and the safety of the student and that the experiment should be continued. At the same time, however, the experimenter did not threaten the doubters "teachers" and did not promise any award for participating in this experiment.

The results were struck by all who had a relation to the experiment, even Milgram himself. In one series of experiments 26 subjects from 40, instead of compressing above the victim, continued to increase the voltage (up to 450 c) until the researcher gave the order to complete the experiment. An even greater anxiety was the fact that almost none of the 40-participating tests did not refuse to play the role of a teacher when the "student" just started to demand liberation. They didn't do it and later when the victim began to pray for mercy. Moreover, even when the "student" responded to each electric discharge, the desperate scream, the test "teachers" continued to press the button. One subject stopped to a voltage of 300 V, when the victim began to shout in despair: "I can no longer answer questions!", And those who have stopped after that were in an obvious minority. The overall result looked as follows: one subject stopped 300 V, five refused to obey after this level, four - after 315 V, two after 330 V, one after 345 V, one after 360 V and one after 375 V; The remaining 26 out of 40 reached the end of the scale, i.e. The actor had to play the death of the "student".

Discussions and assumptions. A few days before the start of his experiment, Milgram asked several of his colleagues (graduate students specializing in psychology in Yale University, where the experiment was conducted) to familiarize themselves with the plan of research and try to guess how many subjects "teachers" will be, despite anything, Increase the discharge voltage until they stop (at a voltage of 450 V) experimenter. Most of the psychologists surveyed suggested that in this way will come from one to two percent of all subjects. 39 psychiatrists were also surveyed. They gave an even less correct forecast, suggesting that no more than 20% of the subjects continue to experiment until half of the voltage (225 c) and only one of the thousand will increase the voltage to the limit. Consequently, no one expected the striking results that were obtained - contrary to all forecasts, most subjects obeyed the instructions of the scientist who headed the experiment and punished the "student" with electric shock even after he began to scream and beat the wall of his legs.

To explain the manifested cruelty, several assumptions were expressed.

All subjects were men, so they had a biological tendency to aggressive actions.

The subjects did not understand how strong harm, not to mention the pain, could cause "students" such powerful electrical discharges.

The subjects simply had a tendency to sadizm and enjoyed the opportunity to suffer.

With further experiments, all these assumptions were not confirmed.

Milgram repeated the experiment, removing the room in Bridgeport, Connecticut under the sign of the Bridgport Research Association and refusing any references to the University of Yale University. "Bridget Research Association" seemed to be a commercial organization. The results have changed not much: 48% of the subjects agreed to the end of the scale.

Paul under test did not affect the results

Another experiment showed that the test floor does not have a decisive value; "Teachers" -weschers behaved in the same way as men in the first experiment Milgram. This dispelled the myth of the soft-graduation of women.

People realized the danger of electric current for the "student"

In another experiment, the assumption was studied that the testes underestimated the potential physical harm caused by the victim. Before the start of an additional experiment, the "student" was given instructions to declare that he had a sick heart and he would not endure strong shocks. However, the behavior of "teachers" has not changed; 65% of the subjects conscientiously performed their duties, bringing the voltage to the maximum.

The assumption that the subjects had a disturbed psyche was also rejected as non-reasons. People who responded to the announcement of Milgrom and the desire to take part in the experiment to study the influence of sentences for memory, by age, profession and educational level were average citizens. Moreover, the answers of the tests for special tests, allowing to evaluate the identity, showed that these people were quite normal and had a rather stable psyche. In fact, they did not differ from ordinary people or, as Milgram said, "They are and we are with you."

The assumption that the subjects received pleasure from the suffering of the victim, was refuted by several experiments.

When the experimenter was leaving, and his "assistant remained in the room, only 20% agreed to continue the experiment.

When instructions were given by phone, obedience was greatly reduced (up to 20%). At the same time, many subjects pretended to continue experiments.

If the subject turned out to be in front of the two researchers, one of which ordered to stop, and the other insisted on the continuation of the experiment, the subject stopped the experiment.

Additional experiments. In 2002, Thomas Blass from the University of Maryland published the summary results of all the repetitions of the Milgram experiment made in the United States in the journal Psychology Today. It turned out that until the end of the scale comes from 61% to 66% regardless of time and place.

If Milgram Rights and Experiment participants are the same ordinary people like us, then the question is: "What can make people behave in a similar way?" - Personal character acquires: Milgram is confident - the consciousness of the need for prestiges is deeply rooted in us. In his opinion, in the experiments they held a decisive role played the inability of the subjects to openly resist the "boss" (in this case, the researcher dressed in a laboratory bathrobe), which ordered the subject to fulfill the task, despite the strong pain caused by the "student".

Milgram leads weighty arguments confirming his assumption. He was obvious that if the researcher did not require continue the experiment, the tests would quickly come out of the game. They did not want to fulfill the task and suffered, seeing the suffering of their victim. The tests begged the experimenter to allow them to stop, and when he did not allow them, they continued to ask questions and click on the buttons. However, the tests were covered with an embryo, trembled, mumbled the words of protest and again prayed for the liberation of the victim, grabbed the heads, so much the fists were squeezed that their nails were dug in the palm of her hand, they bite her lips to blood, and some began to laugh nervously. This is what the person says who watched the experiment.

I saw how a solid businessman entered the laboratory, smiling and confident. In 20 minutes, it was brought to the nervous breakdown. He trembled, stuttered, constantly pulled the ear of the ear and walked his hands. Once he hit himself with a fist on his forehead and muttered: "Oh God, let's stop it." And nevertheless, he continued to respond to each word of the experimenter and unconditionally he obeyed - Milgram, 1963 according to Milgrama, the data obtained testify to the presence of an interesting phenomenon: "This study showed the extremely strong readiness of normal adults to go unknown as far away, Following the authority instructions. " Now it becomes clear the ability of the government to seek obedience from ordinary citizens. Authorities have very strong pressure on us and control our behavior.

Later, the walls of Milgrem conducted other options for less severe experiments, proving a strong influence on a separate person not only authoritative, but also collective opinions. Sometimes the results of such experiments went beyond common sense. In one of the experiments, the researcher asked 10 people to view a video together and then respond to each of the few questions about what he saw. At the same time, the situation was created that out of 10 people viewing roller 9 were actors, "racks" and only one person (he was interviewed by the latter was an ordinary citizen, tested. The roller ended the image of a metal fence consisting of 7 identical smooth rods and crossbars. First Milgreham I asked various questions to the actors, at the same time I was sure to ask that they are now seen on the screen. However, it was impossible to say that they saw the same thing as a neighbor, it was necessary to call in words and describe items, every time again. During the survey, all participants The views were together. The first 9 people (actors) were consistently argued that there are 7 different kryvy rods. After such applications in more than 90% of cases, the tenth participant repeated the description of the previous ones.

Do not believe our eyes. There are no objective truths in social norms, all our knowledge "adopted" by the majority are based on conditional agreements.