History of geographical discoveries and research. Geography in the ancient states Geographical ideas of the ancient world
The foci of ancient civilization includes: in the east of Babylonia (in the south-intercourse of the Tiger and Euphrates, in the north - Assyria), Egypt and the ancient China; In the West - Ancient Rome, Ancient Greece.
Science, as a form of human activity, arose in ancient Greece in the VI - V centuries to our era.
Ancient Greek scientists considered nature as a whole. The main method of science of that time served logical analysiswhat allowed ancient ancient scientist to make many wonderful conclusions that anticipate the scientific discoveries of the new time.
Fear of land recognized Falez. In the VII century BC Pythagoras And his school in the VI - V century BC, and in 384 - 322 years old BC, Aristotle scientifically substantiated the idea of \u200b\u200bsphericality. And it was the greatest achievement of that time.
From the idea of \u200b\u200bthe balloon, the associated idea of geographic zonality.Syrian Posidochi. (II - I century BC) allocated nine geographical belts or zones (we now allocate thirteen belts). Stragone (Died in the 20s of our era) a wonderful geographer, believed that five geographical belts or zones were on the ball-shaped land. Scientists of antiquities believed the average zone due to the heat of uninhabited and did not advise you to swim from the northern hemisphere to the South.
Of the specific geographic sciences earlier than others achieved success cartography. The most perfect map of ancient world was drawn up Ptolomema (II century BC). She was repeatedly reprinted in the Middle Ages. Pretty exactly earth circlewas calculated Eratosthene (276 - 194 Before our era). He also belongs to the term " geography».
Of great interest are geographical information ancient Chinese. They knew how to draw cards, knew the properties of the magnetic arrow, went to the Pacific Ocean (1000 years BC), floated on the outskirts of the seas, opened the Japanese Islands. Long before our era, the Chinese had the correct ideas about the geographical features of Asia, amounted to unique descriptions and maps.
Founder analytical direction In physical geography rightly consider Aristotle. His great work "Meteorological". Here it highlights as a single whole atmosphere, including in it and air and aqueous shell. He is recognized by the ancestor of hydrology, meteorology, oceanology. Eratosthen Call the father of geography. Mainly because it was a fairly accurate map of the earth, puts parallels and meridians on it. They were also allocated so-called "climates" - latitudinal strips with different duration of the day. An attempt was made to divide the land on physico - geographic bands - spagrides.
In addition, it was Eratosthene who emphasized unity of the World Ocean.Eratosphen's work "Geographical Notes" has not reached us. However, the views of Eratosthena outlined Strabo, and therefore we have the opportunity to present the work of Eratosthen in his entire harmony.
The merit of ancient scientists was that they sought explain scientific facts. And this led to the development the historical and genetic method.Ancient scientists interested in much, and most importantly, in relationship. For example, the origin of the Nile delta, the genesis of earthquakes, the formation of the Mediterranean, Black, Caspian Seas, and many other questions. In this regard, it was especially highlighted Stragone. Following Aristotle and Eratosthene, Strabo believed that the surface of the earth is changing all the time. "Surprisingly, I wrote Strakon - that some parts of the Earth, now settlement, were previously covered with seas, and our seas were inhabitable lands. Like this, some sources, rivers and lakes - dried, others opened - the mountains were replaced by valleys, and vice versa. " And it was written in the first century to our era! Strabo wrote 17 volumes of "Geography" and 43 books "History".
One of the first strandov it could be considered Herodota(484 - 428 years before our era). The scientist traveled a lot (Small Asia, Babylon, Egypt, Sicily, the Black Sea coast); I collected and systematized geographic information (India, sugar, atlas), and then described the nature, population, customs, religion, - 9 volumes of "History".
Feature of this stage of geography development: integrity ancient time. This is a bright period in the development of science in general and geography in particular. If the beginning of this period can be considered a continuation of the era of ancient cultures, then its completion is associated with the fall of the West Roman Empire, which marked himself end antique era antique science. She was forgotten in the Middle Ages. And they remembered the science of geography only in the era of Renaissance.
3. Geography of the Middle Ages
A more progressive feudal system came to replace the slave-owned construction in the Middle Ages. However, at the beginning of the Middle Ages productive forces were weakly developed. Significant influence on science religion provided. The materialistic views of the ancient scientists were forgotten, the idea of \u200b\u200bthe shag-formation of the Earth is rejected.
Mocise Indicoplov (Vi ey), the author of the "Christian monograph of the Universe," claims that the earth has a form taberniaThat is, the Earth is a quadrangle, which is surrounded by the oceans. On the maps of this time in the center was Jerusalem, east of him - paradise.
However, religion also had a positive impact on the development of science: in the monasteries were conducted chronicles, descriptions, gathered and published books.
The main feature of the feudal period is insulation, disunity of people.
In the period from V to the XV century, the main achievements of geography are reduced to territorial discoveries.The greatest success in the opening and description of the new lands was reached by Norman, Arabs, Europeans.
"Northern people" norman, the inhabitants of Scandinavia, lived near the coast and were skilled navigators. They made raids in England, France, Holland, reached Constantinople and North America. Separated by them North France got the name " Normandy", Which still exists.
In 867, Norman Naddot Opened Iceland(Ice Land - Ice Country), founded the village Reykjavik.
In 985, Norman Eica red Opened Greenland (Green Land - Green Country). A colony was arose on her southern shore.
Further swimming of Normanov to the West led to the opening North America (Boyars and leif happy) between 987 and 1000 years. It is not known which places they visited: Labrador, or Newfoundland, or south of New York. Geography historians cannot say for sure. But quite accurately, Normans swam in North America long before Columbus.
At first glance, it strikes the ease with which the Vikings (man from the bay) reached very remote places and hard-to-reach territories, overcame the large spaces of North America. We do not detract from the courage and resourcefulness of Normans, their art is to build strong courts. Courts that kept well on the waves. But at the same time, very and very doubtful so that Normans could achieve such ambitious success themselves, if natural conditions did not contribute. X - XII century - this time climatic Optimum, that is, the climate was then softer than now, and therefore the seas less. Otherwise, the Vikings would not be able to float around 65 parallels. Recall that Greenland, they called the Green Country - there were pastures. Only subsequently, these locals were covered with ice. In Icelandic ice sagas as obstacles to swimming are not mentioned.
Approximately 1200 of whale hunters and seals floated to the shores of Svalbard and New Earth.
In the period of the Middle Ages, a prominent role in geographic science was played arab scientists. In 711, moving towards the West, the Arabs penetrated the Pyrenean Peninsula, in the south - to the Indian Ocean (to Madagascar - IX century), in the east - to China. From the south rented Asia.
Arabic scientist Biruni. (973 - 1042) Among the Central Asian scientists, the first to express the idea of rotation of the Earth around the Sun, measured the circumference of the Earth.
The great European traveler was Marco Polo (1254 - 1324). The Venetian Family Polo - Father, Son, Uncle - has spent many years in the wanders. Their journey to China, Mongolia, Sea around South Asia, the 45 years continued to the front Asia. Marco Polo opened the east Europeans. The "Book Marco Polo" tells about the animal world, vegetation, minerals and other objects (for example, about monkeys, elephants, medicinal grasses, etc.). The very narration fascinates, especially when it comes to spices, ivory, etc. The "Book Marco Polo" was translated into many languages, and for a long time remained a valuable benefit for all travelers to Central Asia, India, China. Her studied Christopher Columbus.
4. The era of great geographical discoveries
In the XV - XVI century in the depths of the feudal medieval society, the sprouts of a new social system - capitalism. Industry began to develop, trade, trade relations emerged. The role of cities increased. Science and culture developed rapidly. This time got the name of the era Revival – Renaissance.
In art, culture, science began to revive progressive traditions of ancient time, but at the new level.
With the period of revival, the era of the great geographical discoveries is connected, and the development of natural science development.
It was the time of energetic and passionate people. Friedrich Engels called the Renaissance period of the greatest progressive coup: "At that time there was not a single major person who would not have committed distant travel, they would not speak in four or five languages, would not shine in several areas of creativity. The era of great geographical discoveries is because they are called so loudly that it was marked by grand achievements. "
At this time were open to Europeans North, Central and South America, the path to India around Africa, the first world journey is committed, it is based on systematic geographical discoveries in Siberia.
Let us dwell very briefly on the results of only multiple travel. Those interested in detail can familiarize themselves with the course of expeditions at the recommended literature.
America's discovery is associated with the name Christopher Columbus (1451 - 1506) - the great Italian traveler. Recall that Normans, first visiting America, did not leave written evidence. Opening America, they no matter how the patent for this discovery. It fell in the summer, forgotten.
Purpose Columbus swimming was fabulous rich India and other eastern countries. Columbus made four navigation.
Geographical and cartographic calculations were made with a mistake, and October 12, 1492 (the opening day of America), Columbus was in the Bahamas, and then on the Islands of Cuba and Espanyol (Haiti). The error was not discovered, Columbus believed that he visited the eastern tip of Asia, that is, India. Until the end of his days, Columbus was mistaken, thinking that he visited Asian territories. The perseverance and courage of the traveler who overcomed great difficulties are worthy of surprise.
The opening of America is the most important event in the era of great geographical discoveries.
It forced to revise the existing views on the distribution of sushi and the sea on Earth.
The story turned out to be unfair in relation to Columbus. Outdoor mainland received the name of another traveler. Amerigo Vespucci also visited America, but later Columbus, and just as a member of the expedition, led by the hunts. However, Amerigo, unlike Columbus, eventually realized that it was not in Asia, but within the other continent. He called this mainland - a new light. The fame of Vespucci brought his letters to their homeland, where he was picturesquely, with fiction I made my journey, as well as the cards compiled by him. German Cartographer Martin Waldzemueller suggested a newly open mainland named Amerigo. Initially, it was only South America, and in 1538, on the famous Mercator map, the whole territory of America appears under this name - both South and North.
Europeans's dream find the way to India was implemented by the Portuguese Seaflorer Vasco da Gama (1469 - 1524). He started a trip in 1497 in Lisbon, heated Africa, reached the Malabar coast near Calicut.
In the ways of Columbus in America, the seekers of the new profit were rushed. One of them, Balboa, in search of gold crossed Panaman stake And with his own eyes saw the mysterious "South Sea". So european first visited the shore of the Pacific Ocean - in 1513 year.
And already in 1519, the Portuguese Fernan Magellan went to the first round trip. Its ultimate goal was pragmatic - Western way to walk to Molukki islands rich in spices. Magellan had a lot to work, before he found the passage (Magellan Strait) between the southern tip of South America and the fiery ground. In 1519, he came out of the Spanish port (Sanlukard - Barramed), south of the Atlantic Ocean, and only in 1520 discovered the strait and went out Pacific Ocean.The name of the ocean, as you know, gave Magellan, because during his swimming there was not a single storm. After passing the quiet and Indian Oceans and conceded Africa, the expedition with large losses in 1522 returned to Spain. Magellan was killed. One of the five ships remained alone.
To his journey Magellan installed: 1) the unity of the oceans; 2) opened the water space between America and Asia; 3) confirmed the idea of \u200b\u200bthe ferrousness of the Earth; 4) gave a more complete picture of the configuration of South America.
5. The era of the great Russian discoveries
In the XVI - XVII V.V. The flourishing of Russian geographical discoveries occurred. Russians and earlier collected geographical information. The first Russian chronicle "Tale of the time year" Nestorcontains geographic data about Russia.
In the XII century, Russians, in search of new markets, reached the White Sea. The naval of the Russians west to Scandinavia are marked, north - to Spitsbergen, and the 12th century - the period of intensive movement of Russians to the east. Within a few decades, Russian seruners opened the middle, eastern Siberia, and the Far East, including Kamchatka, and left their names on the state map.
The rapid movement of injecting Siberia and the Pacific Ocean -Ervig Russian landlords. Ways were laid mainly on rivers and wolves between rivers (through watersheds). A little more tools were required in order to cross the space from Ob to Bering Strait (1639). Moskvin Reaching the Pacific Ocean (goes to the ocean) at Okhotsk. Even earlier, Yakutsky Ostrog was founded in 1632, and in 1643 - 1646 Poyarkov It goes from Lena to Yana and Indigir. Khabarov - Pioneer of Amur (1647 - 1650). Dezhnev In 1648, he envelopes from the Sea of \u200b\u200bthe Chukotsky Peninsula, opens a cape, the name of Dezhneva (a large stone nose) and proves, that Asia from North America is separated by the Strait.
Peter I. Much attention paid to the development of sciences. In the 20s of the XVIII century, an expedition was organized on his initiative D.G. Messeshmidta In Siberia. Doctor of Medicine, Danzig Native, Messerschmidt was sent to find medicinal herbs, flowers, roots, seeds. But Messerschmidt turned out to be quite competent in addition to collecting information on mineralogy, nerd, zoology. During the trip (1720 - 1727), he visited the districts: South of Western Siberia - Barabinis steppe, as well as Priobskie North, South Siberia - Kuznetsky Alatau, Minusinskaya Basin, Transbaikalia, Middle Siberia, Midgolia, etc.
As a result of expeditions, Messerschmidt opened in Siberia eternal Merzlot, Graphite deposits, described the salted lakes, found a skeleton of Mammoth (in the Valley of the Tom River), gathered numerous collections on botany, zoology, mineralogy. The result of his expeditions was a decade "Review of Siberia or three tables of ordinary kingdoms of nature." The largest Russian geologist V.A. Obruchev believed that Messeshmidt marked the beginning of Siberia by a systematic study.
In the first half of the XVIII century. continued geographical descriptionsbut with increasing weight geographical generalizations.
Started Lomonosovsky period.The flourishing of geographic science in Russia continued 2.5 centuries - from early 18th century - from V. N. Tatishchev (1686 - 1750) and M.V. Lomonosov begins in Russia Russian scientific geography. Both of them began their activities during Peter I. Reforms. At this time, the word geography is included in Russia.
Older of two contemporaries was V.N. Tatishchev. From the companions of Peter I, he got a task write a textbook on the geography of RussiaSince in translation textbooks about our country have incorrect information. But Tatishchev decided to first state the history of Russia, and even then, relying on her, - geography. In 1720, he was sent to the Urals by the management of land mountain plants, studied the mining abroad and wrote the "Russian history" almost all his life. This five-volume essay was published in 1768 - 1848. In the field of the geography of Tatishchev, the geographical descriptions of Siberia and all of Russia were worried about the formulation of young people's geographical education, amounted to a Russian geographical, historical political dictionary. They were developed classification of geographic scienceswhich is distinguished by historicism, attention to natural resources and the economy. Tatishchev expressed and proved the idea of \u200b\u200bthe need to carry out the border between Europe and Asia in the Urals, the Ural River, etc. He wrote a lot about the natural difference in the western and eastern slopes of the Urals.
New horizons before geography opened M.V. Lomonosov. Rare Genius Lomonosov allowed him to embrace many areas of science and art, including geography. In addition to physical and historical geography, he allocated an economic geography, offering the term himself. Lomonosov made a great contribution to the development of meteorology. He opened the explanation of the mountains.
In the XVIII century, attempts are made to divide the country's territory on strip or districts. These experiences physico-geographical zoning were still elementary, and more often the whole territory shared for three stripes. So, in 1766 F. Bluming On the European part calculated: 1) the northern part (long and cruel winter, there is no bread, no wood fruits, but in abundance of berries, fishing animals and fish); 2) the middle part (winter is also cruel, but enough woody earth fruits, medicinal herbs, livestock, wild animals, honey, good fish, birds, forests); 3) the southern part (it is warmer and more fertile, although not so tight, as the middle part, inhabited).
At the end of the XVIII century Catherine II. (1729 - 1796) A grand event was held - general interactions of Russiain order to characterize all the land owned by landowners and other owners. Many tables were drawn up, where the surname, name, patronymic of the owner, the size of the land owned by him, the quality of soil, missions, forests. Maps are drawn up, where the boundaries of possessions, land lands are shown. This event stimulated the development of geography economics in Russia.
In general, we can say that in Russia, since the mid-XVIII century, serious interest is manifested in the essence of geographic science. Lomonosov and Tatishchev laid the theoretical foundations of geography in Russia, created prerequisites for its further development.
6. Geography in Western Europe in the XVIII - XIX V.V.
XVIII - XIX century were marked by large territorial discoveries, as well as the active activities of such outstanding scientists, as I. Kant, A. Gumboldt, K. Ritter, A. Ghetner, E. Recline, etc.
Great contribution to the discoveries process made by English navigator J. Cook(1728 - 1779). Made three round-the-world swimming. The purpose of the first expedition(1768 - 1771) was the discovery of new lands in the southern part of the Pacific, including the hypothetical southern mainland. As a result, Cook found that New Zealand is not a protrusion of the southern mainland, but represents a double island; Opened the east coast of Australia. The purpose of the second travel Was (1772 - 1775) search for southern mainland. J. Cook crossed the southern polar circle three times, saw a repeated ice, but did not find the mainland. But he opened the southern Sandwich Islands and Islands of New Caledonia, South George, Norfolk. From the swimming, he returned to convinced that, if the southern mainland and there is, then close to the pole, that is, in places inaccessible to man. The famous statement of Cook, that the mainland of the Southern No, stopped sailing for a long time. Third journey It began in 1776 and ended for Cook tragically: he died - he was killed in 1779 on one of the islands of the Hawaiian archipelago. The goal wassurvey of the northern part of the Pacific Ocean and the search for the North-West Pass, along the shores of North America. Cook's courts warked into Africa, approached New Zealand, from there turned north to the Hawaiian Islands. These islands were open to Cup. Next - to the Bering Strait. Thus, Cook made a lot to expand the submission of Europeans about the Pacific Ocean. But the main goal is to open the southern mainland and find the northwest passage - it failed to do it. The name of J. Cook is called the mountain on the southern island of New Zealand, a group of islands in the Pacific Ocean, the Bay on Alaska, the shed in the Islands of New Zealand.
In the period under review africa studied intensively. Soon she was divided and turned into a colony of strong European states - England, France, Portugal, Spain. A great contribution to the study of this mainland has made a famous English traveler - David Livingston . He spent over thirty years in Africa travels (since 1840).
A large German philosopher and geographer was I. Kant.. As a philosopher, he believed that the world objectively exists, but he unrecognizable. A person knows no objective reality, but only his feelings. Canta owns the theory of formation of planets - connects with thickening of sprayed matter. But the thought of Cant that the Universe threatens the thermal death due to the cooling of the Sun is incorrect. The land "warms up" radioactive processes, open after Kant. For more than 40 years Kant read a course of physical geography in Königsberg University. Being a domico, he did not enrich his course with original facts. However, Kant believed that there are two ways to study nature: geographical, which studies phenomena in space and historical, which studies the sequence of phenomena in time. These paths, according to Kant, never intersect.
It is difficult to overestimate the value A. Gumboldt(1769 - 1859) in development world geography. The main area of \u200b\u200bhis research was Central and South America. During the five-year-round trip, Humboldt visited Venezuela, Cuba, Colombia, Ecuador, sailed along the Orinoco River, studied the ecavatorial part of the Andes, made beautiful collections and herbaria. The result of the expedition was a thirty "journey to the equinal areas of the new light." He and Bonplan in 1799 - 1804 gathered a colossal herbarium - 6,000 species, of which 3,500 species are completely new, unknown science. In 1829, at the invitation of the Russian government, A. Humboldt traveled through the Urals, Altai, the coast of the Caspian Sea, the southwestern part of Siberia, and others. Humboldt rightly consider one of founders of scientific studies, creator of the comparative method in geography. The most important thing for Humboldt is finding nature laws, Research order. He explored patterns of changes in vegetation and in latitude, and with a height. He first made a map of the northern hemisphere hemisphere, for the first time, suggested using plasterometric curves to characterize the relief.
In honor of Humboldt, the mountain range in Central Asia and the mountain range in North America, the mountain on the island of New Caledonia, the cold flow from the coast of Peru, several types of plants and Mineral Gumboldtit.
Home Geographical Merit of Humboldt: He revived the ideas of scientists of ancient Greece about geographic zonality .
At the same time, another major scientist lived with Humboldt Karl Ritter (1779 - 1859). Unlike Gumboldt, he traveled little, visited France, Italy, Switzerland. It was rather a typical cabinet scientist. He was considered one of founders of comparative landmark. By the way, it was he who introduced the term "landland". With the help of the comparative method, he managed to explain the individual relationships in nature, the spatial relationship between different geographic objects.
Famous French scientist Eliza Recle (1830 - 1905) is one of founders of modern country studies. It belongs to the works: "Earth and people. Universal geography "- nineteen volumes; "Man and Earth" - six volumes. In them, the river thoroughly described all the countries of the world, leading many interesting details. E. The river belongs to the wonderful words: "Geography, the attitude towards a person is nothing more than a story in space, just as history is geography in time." Problems were reproduced, translated into many languages, integral geographers in different countries studied on it.
7. Geography in Russia in the XIX - early XX century
During this period, geography in Rossi developed very quickly:
1. Numerous studies have been conducted in around the world expeditions, travel - to Antarctica, Central Asia, Siberia, etc.;
2. Original scientific geographical schools were formed;
3. The bright page in the history of geographical studies fits the Russian geographical society - the RGO;
4. The foundations of geographic education were laid.
1. In the XIX century, the territory of Russia has expanded significantly. The Russians have established themselves in Kamchatka, a Russian colony appeared on Alaska and the North-West coast of America. There was an urgent need for communication of St. Petersburg with these remote areas. From here, the idea appeared - to organize around the tips.
The first Russian world swimming was a journey I.F. Cruzenshtern (1770 - 1846) and Yu.F. Lisyansky (1773 - 1837). purpose Travel is to establish a connection with Russian settlements in North-West America, visit Kamchatka, deliver the Russian Embassy to Japan, conduct research.
Ships "Nadezhda" (commanded Kruzenshtern) and "Neva" (commanded Lisya) came out of Kronstadt in August 1803, crossed the Atlantic Ocean, reinforced Cape Horn and headed north to the Pacific Ocean. In the future, they diverged. Lisyansky established a connection with the Russian colony in America, surveyed the coast of Alaska and through the Indian Ocean, having rented Africa, returned to Kronstadt in June 1806. During the sailing, the island was opened in the Hawaiian Islands area (now Lysissky Island), marine currents were conducted (together with the Cruisesttern, he established their direction and origin), the coordinates of the visited points were determined. Cruzenshtern went to the shores of Kamchatka, reached Petropavlovsk, then in Japan stood for seven months - in Nagasaki - and again moved to Kamchatka (it was necessary to deliver the ambassador to Petropavlovsk). On the way, Kruzenshtern examined part of the Kuril Islands and the Sakhalin coast. In the future, returning home, the expedition conducted hydrographic, astronomical and other observations. Numerous materials on vegetation, animal world, ethnography were collected. Kruzenshtern returned to Kronstadt only at the end of the summer of 1806.
After that, the Russian journey made 28 round-the-world swimming. As a result, many islands were discovered, reefs and trends were described, a large material about the islands was assembled. Russian navigators used deserved authority among the sailors of other countries.
The expedition was unique on the plan and execution F.F. Bellinshausen (1778 - 1852) and MP Lazarev(1788 - 1851). purpose - Conduct studies in the southern indoor area.
The expedition went in 1819 on two ships: "East" (Bellingshausen) and "Mirny" (Lazarev) under the general guidance of Bellingshausen. We emphasize - in their task there was only research. There was no speech about any major discovery. January 28, 1820 ships approached unknown mainland.This day is recorded in the chronicles of geographical discoveries as antarctica opening day.In addition, another 29 islands were opened, and the Russian names appeared in the southern hemisphere, on the map of the Supolar region: Peter I island, Shishkova Island, Alexander I, and others. Ships six times crossed the southern polar circle and went around a new mainland. Sailors identified coordinates of parking places, conducted magnetometric observations. In honor of Bellinshausen, the sea off the coast of Antarctica, the Glacier in Antarctica, Cape on Sakhalin, Island in the Tuamot Archipelago; In honor of Lazarev - Atoll in the Pacific, Cape in the Amur Gulf, Island in the Aral Sea. The journey was described by Bellingshausen in the book: "Two-time surveys in the South Arctic Ocean".
In the Russian round-world and generally distant swimming, outstanding naturalists: O.E. Kotsebu, F.P. Lytka, O.S. Makarov, M.N. Miklukho-Maklai, I.M. Semenov. The horizon of Russian natural science expanded extremely. Russian museums enriched with precious collections, there were many messages on the RGO and in other places.
2. Scientific geographic schools. Under the scientific school is understood group of scientistsunited general methodology Research I. common glanceson the essence of studied phenomena, scientists owning similar work methods. We noted that there were schools in ancient Greece. But those schools worked according to the scheme: the teacher is a student. Scientific schools of our time - not at all what in ancient Greece. These are numerous or powerful collectives working in one plan consisting of like-minded people. The scientific school cannot exist without a manager who acts as a generator of ideas, a brain and organizing center of the team. But the Scientific School is not necessarily organized by the team at the place of work (Institute, Department, Department). Scientists can work in different institutions, but ideologically combined around one person (for example, the school of soil climatology - Shulgin A.M.).
The head of the scientific school should be not only large scientists, but also personalityGenerously divided by his thoughts, able to establish the work of other people. Not all outstanding scientists have or have their own scientific schools. We know productive scientific schools LD. Landau, E. Rutinford, P.L. Kapitsa (physics). An excellent leader was S.P. Korolev who was able to rally into a single team and scientists, and engineers, and cosmonauts, enthusiastic with one common idea - space flights.
For school education, favorable conditions are consistent in the higher educational institution. The school may arise around the scientific journal. A permanent expedition studying a large-scale geographic task can also be the basis for the organization of a scientific school.
In geography, scientific schools began to be born in the XIX century. The first scientific geographic school -school Military Academy of General Staffestablished in 1832. Military geography is studied here, that is, the geographical features of individual territories, in terms of the possibility of their use in strategic and tactical purposes. In 1856 a geodesic department was formed. Engaged in the shooting of the area, studied meteorology with climatology, mineralogy. Among teachers were allocated by P.A. Languages \u200b\u200band D.A. Milyutin. Second Scientific School -RGO. The RGO was approved in St. Petersburg in 1945 by the efforts of F.P. Lytka, N.I. Arsenyev, K.M. Bair, V.I. Daly, I.F. Kruzenshtern. The presidents of the nominally were members of the imperial family name, but all the severity of work carried his vice-presidents on their shoulders - President: first F.P. Litter, then p.p. Semenov - Tian-Shansky.
I especially did a lot for the development of go, for the development of geography, the study of Russia and foreign countries P.P. Semenov (1927 - 1914) - Subsequently Semenov - Tian-Shansky. He headed the RGO from 1873 to 1914. He was a naturalist, economist, field researcher. Geographical studies were held in Tien Shan. He first fulfilled the filming of Lake Issyk - Kul, examined the Zailovsky Ala - Tau, Central Tian - Shan. The first of the Europeans rose to the slopes of the highest vertex - Khan-Tengri. His expedition examined 23 mountain passes, gathered rich collections of rocks, insects, mollusks, beautiful herbarium. As a result, they were clarified features of the orography and geological structure of Tien Shan, rejected as insolvent, the opinion of Humboldt volcanic origin Tien Shan . Semenov also studied features high resistance. He was the first to fulfill the scientific description of this mountainous country, and for success in her study, Semenov-Tyan-Shansky called him.
Semenov-Tian-Shansky wrote the history of the RGO for 50 years (1845 - 1895) and noted that from the four periods of development of the RGO, the most brilliant fourth, from 1871-1885 - the period of expeditions by N.M. Przhevalsky. Semenov-Tian-Shansky headed the Central Statistical Committee, in which the first census of the population of Russia was prepared, and economic materials were concentrated, and was completed zoning. The result of Semenov-Tyan-Shansky in this area was the fivetomy dictionary: "Geographical Statistical Dictionary of the Russian Empire" (1863 - 1885).
Semenov-Tian-Shansky wrote many sections and was the editor of the capital publications "Picturesque Russia" and "Russia. Complete geographical description of our Fatherland. In these multi-volume works are summarized by the colossal materials on geography. All sections are written by one plan, figuratively and available for a wide reader.
Semenov-Tian-Shansky very widely interpreted the science of landography or geography, which included cartography, orography, geology, geogenicia (geomorphology), hydrology, hydrography, meteorology, climatology. But since the "crown" of the planet is a person, it is necessary to include anthropology, historical archaeology, ethnography, demography, political and historical geography, statistics (modern economic geography) into science.
Due to the so wide views of Semenov-Tyan-Shan on science, Expeditions of the RGO differed in big sweeping. This outstanding person and a major scientist was able to rally around young, brave, educated people, future researchers and famous travelers. Among them - a brilliant constellation of names, forever inscribed in the Annals of the history of science: N.M. Przhevalsky, and a whole group of his followers, N.A. Severstech, P.A. Kropotkin, N.N. Miklukho-Maklai, I.M. Muskets, etc.
N.M. Przhevalsky(1839 - 1888) amounted to literally an era in the study of Central Asia, having completed four travels. The results are impressive: more than 30 thousand km passed on the uncharted spaces of Central Asia, performed a route shooting, correctly denoted on the map of the Verkhovy Rivers Yangtze and Juanhe, opened the mountain ranges, and lake Lobnor. Przhevalsky collected the richest collections on botany, zoology, conducted meteorological observations, opened an unknown look - the wild horse Przhevalsky, as well as the kind of wild camel. Much attention has been paid to the peculiarities of life, economy, public relations.
Followers Przhevalsky - IN AND. Roborovsky, M.V. Singers, P.K. Kozlov, G.N. Potanin, G.E. GRAMM-MARMZHIPO- expanded and deepened by Przhevalsky's research in Central Asia.
Thus, the RGO has made extremely a lot to study the hard-to-reach areas of Central Asia, opening it for Europeans.
Other areas were studied, in particular, huge spaces of Siberia and the Far East.
Among the major geographers of Russia stands out P.A. Kropotkin(1842 - 1921), scientist, traveler, revolutionary anarchism theorist. The sphere of his scientific interests was very wide. In 1862 - 1867, he made several expeditions on Eastern Siberia, Manchuria, compiled by the Oriograph of Eastern Siberia and Manchuria, opened a few extinct volcanoes, studied the Patom and Wititime Plateau. Home Merit of Kropotkin - development of glacier theorywhich is widely used now. Based on its observations in Finland, Sweden, on the Patomic Highlands, he concluded that the form of relief and surface sediments have ice origins A, therefore, mainland glaciation was widespread in quaternary time.
In historical geography and geology, the glorious page is inscribed V.A. Obruchev (1863 - 1956). Over the years, Siberia has studied, Central and Central Asia, has passed the Custinian region long routes. In the face of Obruchev, a large traveler, a discoverer and an outstanding theorist were connected.
1) Studying Kara-Kuma, he came to the correct conclusion about their water origin, found that the dry line of the Uzuba is the line of ancient AMU-Darya;
2) in Central Asia, he opened six new ridges;
3) substantiated the theory of the eoloy origin of the lessa;
4) Studying golden areas of the Lena River basin, gave forecast searches of gold plates;
5) Exploring Baikal, concluded about the relatively recent formation of his brand.
The results of the work are set forth in the fundamental three-volume one: "Geology of Siberia" (1935 - 1938). Since 1947, Obruchev was an honorary president of the USSR. A wide reader knows him well and as the author of the science fiction novels of Plutonia, "Land Sannikov", the scientific and adventure story "In the Debrys of Central Asia".
The name Kropotkin is named: Range on the Patomic Highlands, Range and Volcano in Eastern Sayanov, Mountain in Antarctica, city in Krasnoyarsk Territory, Embankment, Square and Street in Moscow, Street in St. Petersburg.
In honor of Obruchev, the mineral is called, the ridge in Tuva, an oasis in Antarctica, a glacier in Mongolian Altai, and others.
Honorary place in the Scientific School of the RGO belongs N. N. Miklukho-Maclay (1848 - 1888). The main area of \u200b\u200bits scientific interests is anthropology and ethnography. Miklukho-Maclay has gained world glory as researcher of primitive peoplesIn particular, the natives of the Papua tribe. In 1871, he landed on the northeast coast of New Guinea and lived among Papuans 15 months, studied their life, language, morals. In 1874, he settled on the south-west coast of New Guinea, and in 1880 the southeastern shore of the island was examined. With its humane, close communication with the natives, Miklukho-Maclay has achieved mutual understanding and respect for Papuans. And although many years have passed, on New Guinea, they transmit stories and friendly maclaie from the kind to the genus, call the children with the name of Maclay.
Miklukho-Maclary brought from the expedition to the most valuable materials, sketches, diary records, ethnographic collections. Everything is stored in the Archive and the Museum of Anthropology and Ethnography in St. Petersburg. Home Morning Miklukho-Maclay - he proved the provision on the species unity and relationship of human racesBy studying the Melanesian anthropological type of man, repeatedly performed in defense of the local population from the colonizers.
The formation of scientific schools, as already mentioned, great influence was provided by higher educational institutions. Universities were particularly important, in which the first departments of geography, geographical faculties, institutes arose.
3. Third Scientific School – D.M. Anuna At Moscow University. Anuchin (1843 - 1923) belongs to the creation of the first departments of geography(1884) at Moscow University. The main object of geography, on anchin, is land surface. Anuchin participated in the journey to the Caucasus, to the sources of the largest rivers of Russia, first studied Lake Seliger for the first time, and the group of the Upper Lakes, determined their depths, made maps, described the shore. Anuchi fairly believes the founder of Limnology in Russia. Anchin has a lot of work on the history of geography, anthropology, ethnography. The Scientific School of Moscow University is true of the Anukinsky Scientific School in Geography. Many of his students became outstanding scientists in different areas of geographic science. Many have already created their schools. It is hp Berg, A.A. Borzov, A.S. Barkov, A.A. Cructor, B.F. Dobrynin, I.S. Schukin, A.N. Jawahishvili, and others.
4. Fourth Scientific School - at St. Petersburg University. Here, the second in Russia of the Department of Geography was formed. Her head - V.V. Dokuchaev (1846 - 1903). He was simultaneously a naturalist, an excellent organizer of expeditions and a brilliant teacher. Home meritDokuchaev is to create soil science as independent science. The main provisions of soil science are covered by Dochavov in the fundamental work "Russian Chernozem" (1883). He developed the classification of soil, gave them the names adopted all over the world. They created the theory of soils, about soil formation factors.
The second major merit of V.V. Dokuchaev is to develop teachings about the zones of nature. Even before Dokuchayev, individual facts of the zonal distribution of climate and vegetation were known, but not a universal law of zonality was formed. Dokuchaev as a result of expeditions, and office experiments and generalization of materials received original materials on the zonal distribution of soils and summarized the data on the distribution of other components of nature. As a result of all this, he was able to state the essence of zonality: "... Thanks to the famous position of our planet regarding the Sun, thanks to the rotation of the Earth, its shag-formation, climate, vegetation and animals are distributed over the earth's surface in the direction from north to south, in a strictly defined manner - polar , moderate, tatropical, equatorial belt ... ". His work "To the teachings about the zones of nature" became a desk book.
The third major merit of Dokuchaev consists in creating a scientific schoolunifying future prominent scientists of our planet. His disciples: A.N. Krasnov (1862 - 1914) - explored the south of Russian plains, the Caucasus, Tien Shan, Altai, made a lot for acclimatization of tea culture in Russia. In 1912, the Batumi Botanical Garden was organized along the landscape-geographical principle, which has a large collection of exotic plants. G.I. Tanfolov (1857 - 1928) studied landscapes of tundra, forest-steppe, barabs, Crimea, the Black Sea coast of the Caucasus. He owns the first scientific physico-geographical zoning European Russiain which he used the zonal principle. Author of four thousand work "Geography".
Lighting Science V.I. Vernadsky (1863 - 1945) developed basics of biochemistry and teaching about the biosphere. A wide profile scientist was G.N. Vysotsky (1865 - 1940), which was suitable for solving practical problems on the basis of an integrated geographic method. K.D. Glinka (1867 - 1927) and N.M. Siberians (1860 - 1900) continued the work of Dokuchaev about the soil. Glinka in 1908 - 1916 headed the soil-botanical expeditions to Siberia, in the Far East, in Central Asia. In 1911, the Chief Dochevsky Soil Committee was organized, and later was the first director of the Soil Institute. Dokuchaev. Siberians developed the doctrine of soil zonality. Together with Tanfolov, he participated in the compilation of the soil map of European Russia (1900), awarded a large gold medal at the Paris exhibition. The author of the textbook "Soil science" (1892), where serious attention pays for the origin of soil.
Glinka students - L.I. Prasolov , S.S. Unclev , A.I. Bessonov - In the future, too large scientists. Thus, we can talk about several generations of document followers.
Professor of St. Petersburg University is special and very honorable place in the history of geography. A.I. Ways (1842 - 1916). He did not belong to some scientific school, did not create his school. At the same time, his work is extremely relevant. He is the founder of climatology. His Peru owns the magnificent book "Climates of the globe, in particular Russia" (1884), where he showed the relationship between climate with other natural components. I revealed the physical essence of climatic formation processes, for the first time in geography used the method of balances (for example, a moisture balance in the air, the water balance in glaciers). He is actually the founder agricultural meteorology, agroclimatology. Very modern ideas of Waikov on the impact of man in nature. We give as an example the name of some of its works: "Land improvements and their relationship with climate and other natural conditions", "Man and Water: Ways to use water and their geographical distribution", "Man and Sands", "Cottonation and Climate", and Dr. Wins was a man of huge talent and enormous performance. Suffice it to say that they are written 1,700 books and articles. Giving a tribute to the climate championship, waiter skillfully used complex geographical methods, And rightly is considered one of the outstanding geographers of the XIX early XX century.
Summing up the development of geography in the XIX early XX centuries, we can say that in this period it is enough standing, in Ne. separate industries appeared, formed scientific schools.The founders of physical geography are considered to be D.N. Anuchin, V.V. Dokuchaev and A. I. Waikov. It is more difficult to deal with economic geography. The merits of Semenov Tyan-Shanskaya in the development of geography, including economic geography, which was called statistics in the past.
More than 2,000 years ago, when Jesus from Nazareth was born, the second holy temple was still stood in Jerusalem. Great Pyramid in Giza was already 2500 years old, and the Alexandria Library has not yet been destroyed. But the Colosseum in Rome has not yet been built.
A little terribly presenting the political geography of the time, and the context of events that came to the "storyline" of the life of Jesus Christ.
At the same time, the part of the continent in which Jesus lived in the geographical plan was described noticeably better than the periphery. Moreover, on the cards of that time, the Mediterranean Sea was the center of the world.
The best geographical scientific guidebook about the world, where Jesus was born, was compiled by a person named Strabo. He was born in Amasia (North of modern Turkey).
One of the great works of his life was 17 books of "Geography", in which it was detailed (as far as possible for that time) described the contours of the cities and cultures of the world, and, in fact, geography.
Stragone (OK 64/63 BC. E. - OK. 23/24 AD) - ancient Greek historian and geographer. The author of "History" (not preserved) and survived almost completely "geography" in 17 books, which serves as the best source for studying the geography of the ancient world.
Amasia was located on the edge of the Roman Empire. When Strabo was born, the city is only a couple of years, as he became part of the provinces of the Empire. But Strabo was part of an elite family, and was raised in the Greek academic tradition. 
Strabo in the representation of the artist's times of the era of great geographical discoveries. Image: Wikimedia Strabo comprehended rhetoric, grammar, philosophy - the most commonly studied disciplines of the time, read Aristotle and studied mathematics.
Probably, he would have stayed on the outskirts of the empire, if it were not impatient traveler. He spent several years in Egypt, went to the south - to Ethiopia. The most western point of his travels - Italy, the easternmost - Armenia. That is, he was one of the most active travelers of his time.
According to Strabo and its contemporaries, the world looked like this: the globe was divided into five sections, with two cold poles at both ends, two moderate belts and one hot in the very center.
The inhabited world, like a huge island, was chained to the northern quarter of the globe and was surrounded by the ocean. At least, so was supposed, because no one could circumvent the famous world in those days.
South of the Mediterranean Sea was continent (Africa, which was sometimes called Libya), in East - Asia, north of Europe.
Geographers of that time knew that India was in the Far East, Ethiopia - far in south, Iberia (modern Spain and Portugal) - in the West, and Scythia - in the north.
The UK was already well known. More Mediterranean scientists had the idea that there is Scandinavia, but did not represent its size. The world map according to Strabo (Image: Paolo Porsia / Flickr) In addition to continents, as North and South America, China's largest missing element was China. At the same time, in the second year of our era, the census of the Han dynasty showed that about 57.5 million people lived on its subjective territories.
In the Roman Empire, which numbered about 45 million inhabitants, in those times, it seemed, did not even have the idea that China existed.
Collecting information about distant countries, in their own travels, Strabo mainly relied on the stories and schemes of sailors who traveled, holding the coast in the field of view. And his information on India was mined from the works of historians who described the military campaign of Alexander the Great, who reached India for 300 years before. 
Ancient Galilean. Image: Wikimedia and here in this world the land between the Mediterranean Sea and the Jordan River (Modern Israel and Palestine) from the geographical point of view was not very interesting. This area was not particularly rich and accessible. But according to the Greek and Roman views on the world, this area was strategically important to ensure a passage of land in Egypt.
Storabo works include a small description of the history of the Jewish people. He explains how "Egyptian named Moses" headed a group of followers who believed that God "one thing that covers all of us." And Moses led them to the place where the Jerusalem is currently worth.
Strabo continues: "These territories he easily gained in possession, since here the land was not able to excite envy or become a reason for competition. For this stony land although it is well supplied with water, but was surrounded by a fruitless and anhydrous territory. "
Shortly before the birth of Jesus, this area was governed by the King Herod Great, which Rome appointed as a ruler of the entire Jewish people.
After his death, the kingdom was divided between his three sons, but as a result, their rule was, to put it mildly, unsuccessful.
Since Strain writes, the order in Judea "degenerated". There was a short period (came to the life of Jesus) of the relative world.
But calm will not last long. In the 70th year of our era, there was an uprising against the Roman governance, and the second temple was destroyed.
In essence, Jesus from Nazareth lived in an unstable place, far from the center of the universe. The place where people could be particularly interested in a new religious vision of how to navigate in the confused world.
| Researchers | Years of research | Main achievements |
| Marco Polo | 1271-1295 | The first of Europeans visited China and many areas of Asia |
| Athanasius | 1466-1472 | The first of the Russians visited India and Arabia |
| Bartolome Diash | 1488 | Explored the Western and South Coast of Africa |
| 1492-1494 | Opened in 1492 - Bahamas, large and small | |
| 1497_1499 | Opened a continuous seaway in | |
| Vasco Nunese de Balboa | 1513-1525 | Crossed Panaman's shelters and went to the coast in America |
| 1519-1522 | Under the start of this navigator, the expedition performed the first | |
| Francis Dreyk | 1577-1580 | Made the second world journey, opened many geographic objects in different parts of the Earth |
| Abel | 1642 | Opened I. |
| 1741 | Opened North-West Coast of North America | |
| 1768 -1779 | Opened Eastern, the first of the researchers crossed the southern polar circle | |
| 1799 -1804 | Comprehensively explored the nature of South America | |
| F. F. Bellinshausen and M. P. | 1819 -1821 | Opened and adjacent island |
| mid XIX century | Conducted research in South and | |
| Tian-Shan-sky | 1857 | Investigated mountain arrays |
| 1870-1888 | Made four travels in |
The era of the great Russian discoveries
The first Russian chronicle - the "Tale of Bygone Years" of Nestor contains geographic data from 852 Novgorod, whose city was at that time the richest in Russia, in the XII century. reached. After that, navigation began in Scandinavia. In 1581, began passing the path to Siberia. In 1632, the Yakutsky Ostrog was founded. I. Moskvatin in 1639 reaches the Pacific Ocean at Okhotsk. V. Poyarkov in 1643-1646 The first of the Russian Cossacks-Zemlipowers made swimming in the Amur Liman and the Sakhalin Bay. In 1647-1648 Erofey Khabarov passes Amur to Sungari. In 1648, he opens a cape, which now has his name, and proves that from North America is separated by the Strait.
Development of geography in Russia
As abroad, many talented geographers work worked in Russia. I. Kirilov in 1727 finishes the work "The flowering condition of the Russian state", publishes in 1734 the first edition of the Atlas of the All-Russian Empire. V.N. Tatishchev in 1746 writes the book "On Geography In general and about Russian", M. V. Lomonosov introduces the term "economic geography" into science (1760). K. I. Arsenyev is the author of the scientific papers "Hydro-graph-statistical description of the cities of Russia ..." and "statistical essays of Russia". He acts as the author of the five-volume "geo-graphological statistical dictionary of the Russian Empire", as well as scientific work on the historical geography of Russian settlements. A. I. Wayikov
- The problem of the unity of geography as science and the search for a single object of the study.
- The problem of "theoretical geography" and philosophical foundations in science.
- The problem of "loss" of practical sciences and a fall in public interest in geography.
Development of geography in ancient Greece
Antique time covers the VI century BC. E.- IV century n. e. This time is divided into two periods - ancient Greek from the VI-I century BC. e. and ancient Roman with the I-IV century n. e.
The highest development of knowledge in the ancient time was achieved in ancient Greece, including geography, which consisted of:
- country studies
- cosmography.
Country studies developed with the development of trade and navigation. Cosmography has advanced various theories about the origin and structure of the world.
It was important to decide which form of land. The Greeks offered the first model of the planet, which was a round disk, convex in the middle, and the huge ocean was washed around it.
Ellina lived on the surface of the disk, the monastery of the gods - Mount Olympus was located in the center. The land surrounds the fixed sky and its radius is equal to the earth.
In other versions of the model, the Sky Loca relied on the columns that Atlant supported.
Anaximandr in his model represented that the earth has a split column form, the diameter of this column is three times the height. The column does not relieve anything, but is located in the center of the Universe. People live on the upper plane.
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During travel, Democrite discovered that the planet was oblong. The shag-likeness of the Earth suggested Pythagoras, and Evdox tried to prove this hypothesis, leading the following arguments:
- during the eclipse, a round shadow is formed,
- when lifting a mountain, the horizon is expanded.
Evdox to determine the latitude of the place was the first to use the gnomon, and Falez Miletsky, to build a starry sky, offered the first cartographic projection - a gnomonic one.
They believe that Pill has determined the presence of a relaxed point of the North Pole.
All those accumulated by that time knowledge about the surface of the Earth summarized the Alexandrian scientist Eratosthen from Kyren. He quite accurately determined the size of the Earth and introduced the term "geography". In addition, Eratosphen draws Okumen's card, dividing the entire inhabited world into 7 parallels, and perpendicularly spent 9 meridians. He got a grid that allowed him to make this drawing.
Okuman, suggested Eratosthenes - this is the famous part of the sushi in the form of a small island surrounded by the ocean. As a result, it comes to the conclusion that 4 more array of sushi should exist.
Note 1.
These landing arrays depicted on the first globe ancient Greek philosopher brutses Mallis. The globe was manufactured in 150 g BC. e. And I did not reach this day, and I am very briefly mentioned by Strabo and Gemin.
To build the starry sky cards, various projections, for example, stereographic, orthographic, etc., used astronomers of antiquity.
Strabo proved that the earth's surface is constantly changing, and the drying and sea are distributed as a result of raising and lowering the seabed.
For the development of cartography, a lot was made by Claudia Ptolem, who considered that the land is the center of the Universe. They created geographical maps of various territories of the Earth's surface.
Already in the ancient time inside the geography, the future of country studies, mathematical geography and other natural geographic sciences originate.
Geography Development in Ancient Rome
On the Mediterranean Sea from the middle of the II century to n. e. The domination proceeds to Rome and by 30 BC. e. All Mediterranean, including Egypt and part of the Middle East, was under the rule of the Rome state.
Philosophical and natural-scientific problems of Romans were not interested. They saw meaning only in those knowledge that had practical benefits, for example, in military business or public administration.
Scientists and philosophers of that time were Greeks and many of them successfully adapted to the practicalism of Roman rule and became supporters of the Rome authorities.
Note 2.
The Romans considered the softenness of the Earth as a fact established. Already at that time, the testimony of the Seneki existed a hypothesis about the rotation of the planet around the axis, but many scientists did not perceive this hypothesis and, naturally, were against it.
The geographical information of the Roman republic was kept in the writings of historians. For geographic science, the work of the Romanized Greeks of Polybia and Posidoni was the greatest interest.
One of the 40 Polybia books was devoted to the issues of geography on which Strabo constantly referred to, but this book was not preserved. Knitted with the ruling Roman one, he also believed that knowledge of geography is necessary for military hikes, and the study of such theoretical issues as the form of the Earth and its size, they categorically rejected.
He reduced the geographical questions only to the description of those territories that were in the sphere of interests of Rome.
Some other was the second Roman satellite of the Posidon. His historical work with geographic inserts was conceived as a continuation of the labor of polybia. The second geographic work he had about the ocean. Both essays were also widely used by strapon, but both were not preserved to the present day.
The geography of Posidoni was most likely an explanatory character than the descriptive, and this caused the dissatisfaction of Storabo, who reproached him that he would like a lot of aristotle.
Considering the question of the ocean, it analyzes in detail the spatial representations of Homer, describes the ancient swimming, considers the changes due to raising and lowering the surface of the Earth.
In addition, the position allows the existence of Atlantis, disassembles the doctrine of thermal belts, describes Okumen. Doubting the dimensions of the circumference of the Earth calculated by Eratosphen, he made repeated measurements and received a much smaller value.
The basis of its calculations lay the observation of the height over the horizon of the star Canopus in Alexandria and on the island of Rhodes.
The length of Okumens from the West east to India was greatly exaggerated and was 11,000 km. It was from this figure of Posidonia came from H. Columbus, going to India. Scientists of that time preferred to trust Eratosthene calculations.
Another assertion of Posidoni was completely fair, the fact that the roast part of the zone is also suitable for life. He insisted that near the air temperature equator is lower than in tropical belts. To this conclusion, he came purely theoretically and this in the first century BC
The geographical information of the period of the Roman Republic of Nature data almost did not contain, there were country descriptions in it, information about the peoples and tribes.
The Romans focused on land surveying, and in relation to general physical geography, they did not move forward. Intensive film crews were carried out to build roads for military purposes. The results of these filming were summarized in the Empire's card, which was performed by Mark Vipsani Agrippa. This map was drawn up in the 20th year. e.
Antique travelers
Scientists know that one of the most ancient expeditions took place in 1493 BC. e. to the mysterious country of Somalia. After that, the constant relations of Egypt and Punta were established, but later they were discontinued due to the decline of Egypt.
In order to conquer frequent, expeditions were in small Asia. Surrounding information about this is preserved on Egyptian monuments. One of these inscriptions says that in 1500 g to n. e. Pharaoh Tutamos I moved the Egyptian troops to the Valley of the Jordan River, and from there to the shores of the Euphrates and for several centuries I installed my dominion over these regions.
Later conquered territories were expanded by his successors, who were surprised by the fact that the Euphrates flows south, and the Lebanese mountains have very high peaks. On this information, geographical descriptions ended.
From Egypt, Palma Championship moved to the Phoenicians. They organized maritime expeditions, succeeded in trade and captured a monopoly on her with the right of unhindered nail swimming.
Their galleys transported from Asian Food, Gold, Tin and other products. In ancient times, the Phoenicians were the most active navigators. They had their own colonies for 1500 years before. e. In Cyprus, Rhodes and other Islands of the Aegean Sea.
Later, the Phoenician colonies appeared on the shores of Europe and Africa. Scientists suggest that their ships reached the shores of India and the Malay archipelago.
Swimming around the African continent they committed in the 20th centuries to Vasco da Gama.
Note 3.
The Phoenicians did not leave written evidence of their travels, so the details of their humanity are unknown.
A significant contribution to the development of geographic science was made by Carthaginians and the Greeks, who came to replace the Phoenicians. A significant number of written sources left the Greeks, which became the founders of geographic science.
Even the decline of Greek civilization did not affect the development of geography. The geographical horizon expanded and here played by Alexander Macedonian.
The peoples of the Mediterranean learned about the immense expanses of the Middle East, Persia, mysterious India.
Swimming in the Aegean Sea was not devoid of dangers, but the ancient Greeks freely floated to the shores of Malaya Asia and back. No comments require the history of odyssey wanderings from the poem of Homer.
Traveling the Greeks of the highest heyday is achieved in the V-IV centuries BC. e. The same time falls on the flourishing of mathematics, astronomy, philosophy, cosmology, etc. The centers of the civilization of that epoch were Millet, Ephesis, a column, but the main center of attraction was Athens.
Topic 1. The main stages of the development of geography
Study of the content of the paragraph provides the opportunity
Ø supplement ideas about the origins of geographical knowledge;
Ø examine the stages and features of the development of geographical knowledge at each of the historical stages of the Company's development;
Initial stage In the history of the development of geographic science are the geographical knowledge of primitive peoples. The geographical knowledge was needed in everyday life, and the direction of knowledge was determined by the nature of the classes. They were associated with the need to search and determine the location of the best pastures, soils, land for hunting and fisheries, locations of settlements. Geographical knowledge was based on intuition, observation, knowledge of nature phenomena and the ability to see their relationships and patterns. Thanks to writing to our time, the geographical knowledge of the peoples of the ancient civilized countries (Egypt, Mesopotamia, Sumer, Babylon, China) have reached. ( Remember what studies were conducted in these countries.?).
Geography of ancient times. The geography of ancient time covers the VI century. BC E - IV in n. e, and it is distinguished by the ancient Greek (VI - I centuries. BC) and the ancient Roman (I-IV centuries. n. er) periods.
Antique scientists tried to create the theory about the origin and structure of the surrounding world, to portray the countries known to them in the form of drawings. The results of these seques were an idea of \u200b\u200bthe Earth as a ball, and then his scientific evidence; Creating cards and definition of geographic coordinates, introducing parallels and meridians, cartographic projections.
Summarizing the ideas about the land and the solar system, the Greeks created a knowledge system called music-numerical system of the universe. The name is due to the fact that the sequence of removal of the planets from the Sun and the distance between them was equal to the musical sound. Later appeared geocentric and heliocentric model of the Universe (remember from the course of history, what is this model of the universe?).
The main source of geographic information and geographical knowledge in the ancient Greeks were land and sea travel. The description of the marine travel Greeks was called "Periplam", and land "Periegas". Periegas performers were "logographs", which traveled on land and made a description of the whole of what was observed in nature, but special attention was paid to the customs and life of the population.
From scientists of this time, contributed to the development of geographic thought, phables, Aristotle, Eratosthene, Strabo and Ptolemy ( Recall from the course of history when these scientists lived?).
At the beginning of the new era, the geographical knowledge of Greek scientists was systematized by the ancient Greek scientist Strama. He argued that the surface of the Earth is changing all the time, and the distribution of sushi and the sea is the result of raising and lowering the seabed.
Antique geography ends with labor Claudia Ptolemy. It is known that Ptolemy is the author of the "Almagest" - a classic astronomical work, in which the center of the Universe was proclaimed. Ptolemy made a lot for the development of cartography. He calculated the coordinates of 8,000 geographic points. Created about 30 geographical maps of various territories of the earth's surface.
Thus, there is already an antique time inside geography, the future began to be born country studies (Stram), mathematical geography (Eratosthene, Ptolemy) and some other natural geographic sciences.
Geography of the Middle Ages (VI-XV centuries).In the period of the Middle Ages, under the strong influence of religion, many materialistic views of the ancient scientists were forgotten or rejected as antireligious. But despite the common stagnation in the development of science, culture, education inherent in Middle Ages, at this time there were some geographical discoveries. First of all, they were associated with the campaigns and discoveries of new lands with the scandinals and geographical discoveries of the scientists of Arab countries (scientists and travelers Ibn Sina (Avicenna), Biruni, Idrisi, Ibn Batuta). ( Remember from history when and where did these scientists live?).
Vikings opened, and then founded in the IX-XI centuries. The first settlements in Iceland, Greenland and North America.
Arabic scientists in the x in. Created the first climatic atlas of the world, highlighting the climatic zones on the planet 14 and establishing that the climate changes not only by latitudes, but also from the West to the East.
Arab medieval geographical literature is diverse. There are such works of medieval Arab scientists as the "book of paths and states", "wonders of countries" or "earth wicnings", as well as geographical sections in historical writings.
Throughout the Middle Ages, a relatively high level of science and culture persisted in Byzantium. This is explained by the fact that the Byzantine scientists managed to adopt and develop many traditions of antique geographers.
The era of great geographical discoveries.The most significant discoveries on land and the sea perfect in the XV-XVIII centuries are called Great geographic discoveries. The era of the great geographical discoveries - the flourishing of geography against the background of universal lifting (revival) of culture and science. The era of great geographical discoveries was marked by ambitious achievements, both in the field of territorial discoveries and in the field of scientific theories and methods of research.
The search for new lands and paths was carried out with state-wide. The larger importance acquired the fixation of acquired knowledge, mapping and summarizing the information received ( What role in the opening of new lands in this historical period was played by F. Magellan, H. Columbus).
When opening new lands, there was a need for their cartographic image and description. This led to the formation scientific cartography. Flemish cartographer Gerhard Mercator(1512-1594) created the first cylindrical equanal projection of the world map, which is used and in our days and carries the name of the Mercator. He also developed a method of use isotherm for compiling climatic maps and method of plasterometric curves To characterize the relief, the collection of cards and descriptions of European countries, which, with the publication in 1595, was called "Atlas".
Questions and tasks:
1. What are the main differences between the geography of antiquity and the geography of the Middle Ages?
2. What do you think, why in Arab countries geography in the Middle Ages develops especially violently?
3. What advances in other areas of knowledge contributed to the development of geography?
4. * What are the needs of the Company satisfied geography in the era of great geographical discoveries?
