The relationship between economy and wealth are examples. Is there a relationship between attitudes and behavior? How the economy serves people
Atlantico: In Northern Europe, 10% of the population owns 65-69% of the national wealth. All of these countries, Sweden, Denmark and Norway, are usually cited as examples of social protection for citizens. So what is the reason for this level of inequality?
Henri Milner: Usually when we discuss inequality and make comparisons between different societies, it is preferable to talk about the distribution of income.
When it comes to this very policy of distribution, we are primarily interested in the financial capabilities of the state. And they are based on the ability to establish a certain level of income and consumption. That is, wealth begins to be of interest to the distributing state at the moment when it begins to turn into income.
For these countries, the Scandinavian model needs to be viewed from a historical perspective. In its golden age, that is, the 1950s, the social democratic model of the Scandinavian states and, in particular, Sweden relied mainly on large exporting companies like Volvo, which were able to pay good salaries. This situation is beneficial to the state, because it can count on significant contributions from well-paid workers, dividends from shareholders and even their purchase to finance the welfare state.
This policy forced some wealthy people to leave the country in order to avoid paying too high taxes, but its main result was the consolidation of the position of large exporting enterprises. The dialogue between union representatives and legislators and the purpose of this taxation (income or property) has generated a consensus around the priority for improving enterprise competitiveness, investment opportunities and innovation. Employers' federations and social democratic trade unions reached a historic compromise on everyone's responsibility for the welfare of this model back in 1938. Subsequently, the Social Democratic government actively developed centralized negotiations between trade unions and the management of enterprises, which made it possible to implement the "Ren-Meidner model". Within the framework of this model, trade unions pursue a “solidarity wage policy,” that is, they demand the same salary for a certain type of work performed and reject salary changes depending on the financial situation of a particular enterprise. As a result, less efficient Swedish enterprises went bankrupt, while more efficient, profitable and technologically advanced ones absorbed the freed up labor force and strengthened their international competitiveness. This is how the positions of the most profitable enterprises were consolidated. This mechanism accelerated restructuring and economic growth, which contributed to the rapid rise in living standards in the post-war decades.
So, what link can you make between social security and rising inequality?
- Recently, there has been a slight increase in income inequality. This is mainly due to globalization, a weakening of the centralized bargaining system, and slightly greater disparity in after-tax revenues. Nonetheless, inequality has been largely mitigated by reallocation of funds in a variety of forms, from health insurance to student scholarships.
- If the population is under the protection of the state, why is increasing inequality seen as a problem?
- Let's dot the i's. Inequality in inheritance and property has long been part of the system and does not pose any problems per se. Here we are talking about income inequality, which is still lower than in other OECD countries. Thus, people in Scandinavian countries do not see this increasing inequality as such a big problem. They think they live in good conditions, but if the income gap continues to grow, it could be a threat to them. This explains, for example, why the Swedes recently replaced a center-right government with a center-left government.
- Could such a system exist elsewhere? To what extent does culture become the foundation of the Swedish system?
- Cultural referents do play a role in the Scandinavian model and in particular relate to its ability to find consensus around compromise-based cooperation. Thus, the Scandinavian countries created tripartite institutions based on this ability in the middle of the last century, when conditions were completely different. The application and adaptation of this model as such today seems to me an impossible task, both in the northern and any other states.
In addition, the problem of migrants is now becoming increasingly important, since immigration flows have noticeably increased in recent years. First of all, this concerns Sweden, where many refugees from Syria, Iraq, etc. go. This migration is different from what is happening in Finland and other European countries. Therefore, there is no guarantee that this model will remain in its current form. In addition, the economic and cultural integration of immigrants has already played a significant role in the rise in popularity of the Swedish version of the National Front, which managed to gain 13% of the vote in the September elections.
Henri Milner, Fellow, Department of Political Science, University of Montreal.
Any meeting in life is not accidental. Each for something and for some reason is given to you. Each one lays its imprint on your destiny.
According to the Law of Connections, all meetings in life are conventionally divided into nine categories according to the degree of influence on the fate of a person and according to the degree of approximation of connections:
1. Children (they are the closest and most important people in life);
2. Favorite;
3. Spouses;
4. Parents, brothers and sisters;
5. Relatives;
6. Friends;
7. Colleagues;
8. Acquaintances;
9. Casual passers-by.
Let's start with the farthest category that affects us most weakly; it includes people with whom we have the most minimal fateful connections.
Relationship laws
PASSENGER
We do not give everything to the first person we meet and do not go to the ends of the world. With casual passers-by, to have only contacts corresponding to this category - there will be more sense. The main way of interacting with a passer-by is an equivalent exchange, which is an indicator of our benevolent attitude towards the world.
If you need to make a decision about the person you are seeing for the first time, for example, whether to provide help for which you are asked, whether to buy the things that are offered to you, listen to your feelings.
Try to understand whether a pleasant or unpleasant energy impulse comes from a person and how this impulse in you responds. For example, from those who impose their goods on the street, there is often a good energy impulse (they specially learn this), but if you listen to yourself, then a vague unpleasant feeling arises.
FAMILIAR
These are people with whom we often or not very often, but meet in life. We cannot put them in the category of friends, because we do not feel much intimacy with them. In general, we do not know them well enough to understand who they are to us, other than that they are just acquaintances.
These are friends, neighbors, a permanent hairdresser, a bath attendant, school teachers of our children and parents of school friends of our children. This category is the most extensive in our life. And how differently we behave in the bathhouse and at the parent meeting, so differently we build our energetic relationships with different acquaintances.
All of us, inhabitants of the Earth, are united and alike, and we have common tasks. The whole life of society as a whole, and therefore each of us, depends on how each person lives.
The energetic interaction with the category of acquaintances is very diverse. We can perceive acquaintances as very close and pleasant people, love them more than relatives, be spiritually united with them, and we can even perceive some of them as hostile. Depending on this, we build our relationship with them.
SERVANTS
People connected with us on business are closer than just acquaintances. But they should never be confused with friends and relatives. Otherwise, business relations, friendships and relatives may suffer greatly. Not to mention the fact that the case itself can crumble to dust. Interaction with colleagues can only take place on an equivalent exchange.
The venerable lady, the director of a shoe store, "out of friendship" hires the daughter of her school friend. By a strange coincidence, the girl finds herself in a situation where she becomes the cause of enormous trouble. The store manager almost goes to court. Everyone is shocked. A school friend becomes a hated enemy. Meanwhile, only the venerable lady herself is to blame. Business relations should be built only on a business basis. But the lady did not fully understand her mistake, because the conclusion she learned from the lesson was: do not do good to people.
FRIENDS
The fateful category of friends opens up a series of close and dear people. And relations with them are built in a completely different way. In the three previous categories, relationships were built on the basis of mutually beneficial exchanges. Friendship relationships involve selfless support, help without regard to what you get in return.
Why is fate bringing us together? Why, meeting one person among thousands of people, do we suddenly feel the kinship of our souls? Because this relationship really exists. We do not always remember and understand this, but we always feel that we are chickens from the same basket. We understand each other, we think similarly, we have the same life values. We are cosmically from one basket. How and why does this happen? The question is for tomorrow.
There is an ancient truth: it is better to be deceived by friends than not to trust them all your life. If your friends deceived you, well, then you were mistaken and mistook the wrong people for your friends. Only you are to blame. Learn to distinguish between categories!
RELATIVES
We came to this World not by chance, but according to cosmic laws, which we are not given to fully comprehend. We are a part of the entire society of the planet Earth, therefore, the state of the whole society as a whole depends on the state of our soul.
Directly and directly this is expressed in the fact that we "cleanse" the fate of a kind. That is, we are obliged (by birth) to solve the problems of our family, help relatives, accumulate the positive energy of the clan, freeing subsequent generations from generic diseases and problems.
The family we came to interacts with us in different ways. To some he is given as a guardian. The clan protects from adversity, helps on the path of life, directs and gives strength in difficult times. It means that we somehow deserve such support! Such roots must be preserved, passed on by inheritance, multiplying traditions.
For others, the race is given as a test. In overcoming generic problems, and sometimes curses that lie on him, the soul grows stronger, hardens, gains strength and thereby cleans the roots, because the person himself is a particle of the genus. Overcoming the negative in himself, he thereby purifies the genus as a whole.
However, there are people who depend very little on the fate of their kind. Apparently, because they have a very serious personal task and a difficult life purpose according to their own destiny. Such people leave their parental shelter early, move far from home, quickly acquire independence and independence, even with close relatives they maintain a very weak connection. They often have a difficult life path, and usually they have big complicated things ahead.
Unfortunately, too many people, playing on family feelings, are ready to morally destroy their loved ones and not even feel that they did wrong. These are energetic "vampires", one should close oneself from them. And yet, be that as it may, if even the most distant relative asks you - do not refuse, do everything in your power. This is your generic structure, your children and grandchildren will carry it, it depends on you how clean, auspicious and strong roots they will get.
Equivalent energy exchange is rarely possible with relatives. Either we use their energy, or we give them ours. We often recycle each other's negatives. Sometimes we have to close. And all this is normal for this category of relations due to the specificity of generic energy processes.
PARENTS, BROTHERS AND SISTERS
The relationship that you develop with your closest relatives is the most striking indicator of your attitude to your family fate. If there are several children in the family, then each of them may have their own relationship with the family and, therefore, their own indicator of connection with the family fate.
Our world is arranged in such a way that one of the children can be the full bearer of the fate of the father, the other - of the mother, and the third remains clean of these debts. Much more complex interweaving of family lines between brothers and sisters is also possible. Two daughters can carry the fate of the mother, and the father passes on the pure genetic line to his grandson. The brother and sister inherit their father's problems, and the mother passes on her creative talents to her grandson. There are as many options as there are families in this world.
A favorable relationship between brothers and sisters, disinterested and benevolent, is a great gift from fate and invaluable support from heaven.
But if the relationship is developing badly and even very badly, we will not forget even then that these are our brothers and sisters, given to us from above. And no matter what happens, we must humbly accept what is given to us. Let us provide reasonable support to our loved ones - this is what we owe them somewhere and are now giving back.
If an alcoholic brother asks for money to drink it away, our duty is not to give him everything we have, but to do everything to save him. However, not against his will. Everything that is done against the will of a person is done for evil.
If there was a disagreement between sisters and brothers, forgive the offenders, we deserve these offenses, maybe we are more to blame for our mutual misunderstanding of each other. Let us give in and go to reconciliation - this is working off the fate of our kind. By working it out, we will clear the way for our children and grandchildren.
No matter how our relationship with our parents develops, we will forgive them and ask for forgiveness for not understanding them. Whatever it was, these people were given to us by God - therefore, we deserved this and must humbly accept what is given.
Spouses
Marriages are made in heaven. Spouses are people who have to build their destiny together. Dependence on a spouse is much more than dependence on parents. Failure in marriage is often much more difficult than a “difficult” childhood. She is perceived as a collapse of the plans and hopes of youth. Not everyone manages to find the strength to start all over again, sometimes at a not young age. Joint children continue to tie spouses and divorced.
You have chosen a person as your spouse, and now he (or she) absolutely does not suit you. But you yourself chose - does it mean that this person corresponded to something? It turns out that you chose what you matched yourself at that moment! Now you need to figure out why fate brought you together. What should you give to each other, what to teach and learn through your meeting.
The energetic relationship between spouses knows no boundaries. It is almost impossible to “close” from a spouse. The fate of the two grows together and becomes common. The energy of a harmonious married couple is so great that they are practically invulnerable. Alien, disharmonious influences can only interfere for a while, the energy of two displaces everything that interferes, destroys all negatives.
But if on the second day or the second year after the wedding you found a serious disharmony in your relationship with your spouse, then your task is to do everything to make them as harmonious as possible. You can't just pick up and leave. The spouse is not a casual passer-by. This is a different level of relationship.
When you answer yourself all the questions and complete all the difficult mental work, you will have a feeling of emptiness. There will be no irritation, no annoyance, there will be no offense, you will know that everything is your own fault. Then you will become free, you will have the right to make a choice, you will have the right to break off relations that bring no one joy. But your work must be done "one hundred percent", you cannot deceive yourself. The problem is solved when emotions leave and a reasonable, light attitude to everything that happens.
Marriage is the experience of serving another person. This is a test of the ability to love and empathize, the ability to accept someone else's point of view, to listen to it, despite any difference in views.
How much your soul gains if you serve diligently and selflessly, with humility and love for a person. How happy people are when, having eaten a pound of salt together, they finally harmoniously grow into each other, accepting a spouse as he is, loving with all his heart his merits and his demerits. Do not think that this is simple humility before life or fear of it. If people achieve harmony, it is always the result of the great inner work of both.
FAVORITE
It is good when loved ones and spouses coincide in one person. It is more difficult when they are different people. Relationships with loved ones are built in much the same way as with spouses. But if marriage can be a difficult fate, love is always happiness, and it is given as a reward, it must be cherished as an invaluable gift.
If true love is not mutual, it gives us even higher states of the soul, when we are able to wish our beloved happiness with another, with the one she loves.
There can be only one energetic interaction between lovers - a gift. Give the whole world, give yourself, give every drop of your energy. To feel how with each new breath the invaluable gift does not disappear, but only multiplies, grows, acquiring new strength.
CHILDREN
The main duty of a person living on Earth is a duty to a child. The concepts of Peace, Good and Evil are usually assimilated from parenting, they are absorbed somewhere deeply, on sensations even when they are not spoken about aloud.
Which way of interacting with your child you choose is a matter of your taste, character, education, but most importantly, ask yourself more often: "What am I stimulating in him with this action, given a specific word?"
You punished your child - what did you show him? An example of cruelty, the firmness of a hand that has power, or how you need to be free and take responsibility for your actions? How much sensitivity, how much subtlety is required for a parent to feel what exactly responds in a small person in response to the actions and words of adults. Only the endless energy of love for a child can help in this difficult, sometimes intuitive work of the soul.
In conclusion, we can say that such a division into categories is very arbitrary. One and the same person can be for us in one case a colleague, in another case - another, in the third - a loved one, a relative, a brother. The point is not to label each individual person as “a casual passer-by” or “the most beloved of all loved ones”. The task is to understand, in moments of communication, what is happening, what is permissible and what is unacceptable with a given person in a given situation. published
El Tat
P.S. And remember, just by changing your consciousness - together we are changing the world! © econet
The well-known form of a certificate for weapons was canceled, and instead of its usual format, new forms were introduced in the year. Where can I get a certificate for weapons. Obtaining a weapon certificate has now become more troublesome and time-consuming procedure.
A certificate for a new type of weapon consists of two documents. The first of them - a certificate of O / y - is needed to obtain or renew a license and is, in fact, confirmation that the person who takes up arms is adequate, stress-resistant, not prone to aggression, so he will not shoot from him at passers-by for bad reasons. Where can I get a weapon certificate?
Terms of validity of the medical certificate. Grounds for refusal to issue a certificate for weapons. The cost of a weapon certificate. New compulsory examinations for obtaining a medical certificate for weapons. Note that the certificate on the form is valid for a year from the moment it was issued to you.
The changes are that new certificates-conclusions will be issued only on new, approved forms, but in no case will anyone cancel the effect of old certificates. Grounds for refusal to issue a certificate for weapons - is it possible to re-pass the examination or challenge the refusal?
They can refuse to issue documents for the following reasons: You are under 18 years old. List of clinics where you can officially get a medical certificate No. 1 for weapons in Moscow. Help cost, customer reviews. Free consultation on the issues of registration of the certificate. 14 clinics where the Medical Certificate form is provided in Moscow (officially).
Help Ф № for obtaining a license to purchase weapons. For carrying and storing weapons / security activities (). Medical certificate Form in the form approved by the Order of the Ministry of Healthcare of the Russian Federation No. of the city is issued if you wish to obtain a license to carry and use weapons. Help f.
will be needed not only for people who acquire weapons as self-defense, but also for guards (employees of security companies) and hunters.
Who can get a weapon certificate? In accordance with the law of the Russian Federation "On Weapons" No. ФЗ dated, the following can pass the weapons medical examination and issue a medical certificate for weapons in the form: citizens of the Russian Federation who have reached the age of 21; citizens of the Russian Federation under the age of 21, undergoing military service.
Therefore, where to get a medical certificate for a weapon, in a clinic or a commercial medical center, everyone decides for himself. The medical examination for the renewal of a weapon permit presupposes the passage of the same specialists as at the initial stage.
A medical certificate for a weapon with a narcologist and a psychiatrist in the year is also supplemented by a certificate from the HTI. The medical certificate of the form for the guards will be required after a year when passing the periodic check. A sample weapon certificate form must be present on information boards in medical centers issuing such a document.
For what diseases the certificate is not issued. Algorithm for obtaining a medical certificate for weapons in the form of O / y. To get a certificate for carrying and storing weapons, you must: Donate urine for CTI (chemical and toxicological research). This can be done at ExpressMedService medical centers. Therefore, if you want to receive a medical certificate, which is the basis for obtaining a weapon permit in St. Petersburg, please contact our centers.
Useful information. Required documents for the weapons medical board. Clinics offering the service Certificate for weapons (form No. 46,). Clinic rating. Appointment to clinics. Preventive examinations: Medical documentation: Passing a medical examination to obtain a certificate for the right to carry weapons (O / y).
Medline Service. Show 8 more branches of this clinic. Where can I get the document. When issuing a medical certificate, it is important to know that a fake and any violation of the rules for filling it out, including the use of a form that is not intended for this, entails punishment from law enforcement agencies.
Therefore, you need to approach with all responsibility to the choice of a medical institution that will deal with the execution of the document. As a rule, this issue is dealt with by a polyclinic at the place of residence or medical centers that are licensed to conduct an examination for the issuance of a permit for the storage of weapons. What is the validity period of the ref.
Categories Post navigationAuthors: Bogolyubov L.N., Ivanova L.F.
Year: 2013
Description: Gdz to the textbook Bogolyubov L.N., Ivanova L.F. in social studies for the 7th grade. On the pages of the Reshebnik you will find, made by experienced specialists - ready-made homework assignments, large and short notes, detailed and competent answers to questions, correct solutions to tests, excellent essays for problems and workshops.
Bogolyubov Grade 7 / Paragraph 8
Paragraph 8. Economy and its main participants.
Let's check ourselves.
1. How does the economy serve people?
Economy is the economic life of society, which studies the relations of people about the production, distribution, exchange and consumption of material goods. Also, economics helps to identify how to use limited natural resources with unlimited human needs. In general, without economic processes and relations, a person could not exist normally.
2. What form of management most successfully solves the goals of the economy?
Commodity economy is the basis of economic progress in the modern world, in contrast to the primitive natural economy, which provides for itself. Commodity economy is a progressive form of management in which manufacturers produce a specified product for trade. In this situation, there is a rapid growth in a variety of goods created to satisfy any needs of society, which is the main goal of the economy.
3. What is common and what are the differences between the economic interests of the producer and the consumer?
What the manufacturer and the buyer have in common is that they both strive to satisfy their interests with minimal cost. The seller and the buyer strive to increase the sale / purchase of product volumes and incur minimal costs.
At the same time, the buyer seeks to buy something for a small amount and at the same time receive a quality product. In turn, the seller wants to sell sometimes not the best quality product at a high price. That is, everyone seeks to get their own benefit. At the same time, the buyer gives his money, and the seller receives it.
4. How are the activities of the main participants in the economy interconnected?
There is a close relationship between the main actors in the economy. It lies in the fact that manufacturers strive to produce those goods that will find their buyer in the future. Buyers, when making their choice of goods, show the manufacturer what exactly, in what quantity and what quality needs to be produced.
This is the classic connection between supply and demand. At the same time, demand is of paramount importance, regulating production, resource consumption and the rationality of the use of productive forces and capital.
In the classroom and at home.
1. You already know that the term "economics" has several meanings. Look to dictionaries, the Internet and find several definitions of this term. Invite classmates to discuss and explain them.
1. Economy - the sphere of human activity for the production, distribution, exchange and consumption of material goods.
2. Economics is a science that studies effective ways of using limited resources for the production of material goods.
3. Economy (economy) is an economic activity that meets the needs of people and society as a whole by creating the necessary benefits.
4. Economics (economic theory) is the science of human behavior and their relationships in the process of economic activity with limited resources and unlimited needs.
5. The economy is an economic complex that includes industries in types of production and non-productive spheres. The production, consumption and distribution of an economic product occurs on different boundaries and scales.
2. Can we agree with the following statement: “Economy is life itself in all its diversity”? Give reasons for your answer.
Economic relations permeate all spheres of society. The modern world cannot be imagined without economy. Even in ancient times, when there was no money, there was an exchange. This is also part of the economy, that is, human economic activity. It includes, in addition to exchange, production, distribution and consumption itself. Without all this, it is impossible to imagine human life, therefore, yes, I agree with the statement. We have been involved in economic relations since childhood. Children swapped cars for a while in the sandbox - this is also an economic relationship.
3. One of the scholars of the past defined economics as the science of wealth and ways to achieve it. Do you think that mastering economic knowledge is enough to become rich? What else do you need to know and be able to do to achieve this goal?
In order to become rich, it is not enough to have economic knowledge. If it were that simple, then all economists would be rich. To achieve wealth you need an "economic streak" in a person. He must be able not only to understand how the economy works, but also at the right time to create a service or product that will become popular.
The practice and theory of economics are completely different things. Many people, not knowing the nuances or definitions, earn millions, only on their "idea". And not everyone is capable of creating an “idea”.
4. Fill in the table "Main stages of product movement".
Exchange. And soon consumption. Exchange because they are buying new potatoes. Consumption because they will plant potatoes.
8. The Petrovs decided at a family council that it would be useful to go in for sports to improve health. Having identified the interests and capabilities of family members, we opted for skiing. We made a list of what was needed and estimated the financial resources, agreed on the place and conditions of the purchase. What is the economic interest of the family as a consumer? What economic knowledge will help her make a rational (profitable) purchase and get the most benefit from it?
1. The family has several economic interests:
a) Since they opted for skiing, then they need to purchase inexpensive and good equipment.
b) After purchasing, start looking for the nearest and good ski resort.
2. In fact, if you think about it, you can save quite well on the purchase.
a) At the ski complex, there are sometimes promotions for families, they can be viewed on the website of the complex, with the help of them you can save a lot.
b) In winter, ski equipment is always sold out quickly, and besides, the price is wow, it is best to buy ski equipment in the summer, because there is not much demand for it, which means that you can find both the size and color to taste, and the price is much lower.
Do a person's attitudes affect his behavior? Is it possible, knowing about the presence of this or that attitude, to predict the actions of a person? Common sense gives us an affirmative answer. It is likely that if we evaluated a person's commitment to environmental protection as positive, then we can expect that this person will not throw away empty bottles and old newspapers, but hand them over for recycling. But will this prediction be correct? It turns out that this is not necessary at all.
We know many examples when people's behavior does not correspond to their attitudes. For example, our newspapers report cases when Russian border guards in the Far East, who must resist illegal fishing, sometimes engage in poaching themselves. And sometimes you can see how two people who met exchange pleasantries, although in fact they hate each other.
The degree of influence of attitudes on behavior has been the subject of research discussions since the 1930s. last century. These discussions began with the classic work of the American sociologist R. La Piere (La Piere, 1934). The study's author, a white American professor, traveled around the United States by car for three months with two Chinese - a young married couple. The trio crossed the country twice up and down the west coast. Travelers stayed in 66 hotels and visited 184 restaurants. Although there was then strong prejudice in the United States against Asian immigrants, especially on the west coast, only in one case were they refused to be served. Some time later, La Pierre sent letters to each of these establishments, asking if they could accept Chinese as their clients. Of the 128 responses received, 92% were negative. La Pierre and many others have interpreted this data as reflecting a large disparity between behavior and attitudes.
However, in subsequent years, at times, a much greater correspondence of attitudes and behavior was found (Taylor et al., 1994). For example, one American study analyzed data from large-scale polls conducted during four presidential campaigns. The voters' attitudes towards their candidates, as revealed by the data of pre-election interviews, were closely related to the actual behavior of these voters when voting: 85% of the respondents demonstrated a correspondence between attitudes and behavior, despite the fact that they were interviewed about a month before election day. Moreover, almost all voters who did not show such compliance were characterized by weak attitudes.
It is generally accepted that there are significant variations in the correspondence of people's attitudes to their behavior. Recently, a number of researchers have made attempts to determine the conditions that would contribute to one degree or another degree of correspondence between attitudes and behavior. So, an important condition for this correspondence is that this or that attitude of the personality is strong and clear enough. Inconsistency most often refers to weak or ambivalent attitudes. As already mentioned, the discrepancy between the attitudes of the voters and their actual choice stemmed from the weak attitudinal preferences of these people. Likewise, behavioral correspondence to attitudes may not be found if the affective and cognitive components of the attitude conflict with each other.
According to the available data, anything that can enhance an attitude should lead to an increase in the correspondence between attitude and behavior. Another means of strengthening attitudes is to put them into practice repeatedly. It was found that the correspondence of attitudes and behavior is greater when people think about their attitudes and express them.
It should also be noted the importance of the stability of attitudes. Obviously, attitudes are subject to change over time. Those or other attitudes that a person adhered to several years or months ago, apparently, will not influence his behavior to the same extent as the current attitudes. Therefore, the correspondence between attitudes and behavior should be maximum when the measurement of attitudes and the observation of behavior are carried out at approximately the same time.
Another important circumstance when considering this problem is the relevance of attitudes to the observed behavior. In other words, it is about the extent to which the attitudes expressed by people are related to their specific behavior. For example, it is believed that La Pierre's survey of hotel and restaurant owners about their feelings for the Chinese clearly had nothing to do with the question of the owners' attitudes towards this particular couple. In general, human behavior tends to be more consistent with attitudes that are extremely specific, and not related to a wide class of possible behaviors.
A similar explanation of the results obtained by La Pierre is given by V.A. Poisons from the point of view of dispositional regulation of behavior. The discrepancy between the attitude expressed by the owners of hotels and restaurants and their subsequent actions is explained by the fact that the leading role in the regulation of behavior belonged to a disposition of a different level. Thus, the value orientation on the prestige of the institution led to a negative response regarding the service of the Chinese. But the same orientation presupposes the observance of the accepted service rules, if the client has already appeared in the establishment (Yadov, 1975).
In the latter case, what American authors call "situational pressure" is manifested (Taylor et al., 1994). It is known that any human behavior can be influenced by both his attitudes and the situation. When the pressure of the situation is strong, attitudes do not condition behavior as strongly as when it is comparatively weak. This is easily seen in the example of La Pierre's research. Well-dressed, respectable people who show up on the doorstep of a hotel or restaurant find it difficult to refuse service, despite feelings of prejudice against this ethnic group. External pressure is becoming stronger, as the rules for admitting clients require that appropriate service be provided to anyone who needs it and can pay for it.
One of the attempts to analyze the influence of attitudes on behavior is A. Eisen's theory of planned behavior (Ajzen, 1985). In accordance with this theory, this or that behavior is carried out on the basis of certain considerations - what people think about the consequences of their actions, and they make deliberate decisions in order to achieve the intended results, while avoiding some undesirable consequences. So, here the intention of a person acts as a kind of key that precedes his behavior. It is the behavioral intention, not the attitude, that predicts subsequent behavior in itself. According to this theory, three main components - attitude towards certain behavior, subjective norms and perceived control, when combined, cause any kind of behavioral intention. Proponents of this approach believe that almost any behavior and associated behavioral intention can be explained on this basis, from the decision to use birth control to the choice of a specific toothpaste (Deaux et al., 1993).
Based on the theory under consideration, an individual attitude towards a certain behavior is the product of two factors: assumptions about the consequences of this specific behavior and an assessment of possible results. Each of these factors varies from person to person, influencing their behavior. As an example, consider a student's decision to spend an extra eight hours a week on foreign language classes. Two different people may agree on the likely outcomes of these behaviors — higher academic grades and less time spent with friends — but these people may differ in their estimates of these outcomes. Thus, a student may rate his or her learning progress as much more meaningful to him than the time spent with friends. Consequently, his attitude towards extra classes will be more positive than that of another student who considers friendships to be very important compared to certain academic grades.
The second component of the model under consideration is subjective norms that introduce a social element. These are the assumptions of the individual about what he should do from the point of view of other people, and the strength of his motivation to meet these expectations. The two students in our example might consider the expectations of their parents, friends, and perhaps a favorite teacher as they decide whether to spend more time learning. At the same time, one student can be sure that his parents will approve of his choice in favor of teaching, and will be motivated to meet their expectations, while another student may have exactly the same understanding of the position of his parents, but not care about meeting their expectations. their wishes. Likewise, the expectations of friends and family may affect some people more than the expectations of others.
The third component of Eisen's model is perceived behavioral control. It is understood that some activities are more in control than others. More important, however, Eisen suggests, is the individual's opinion of this control. Let's look at the student example again. The former, although it may give more value to high grades and be motivated to meet parental expectations, is less likely to turn to additional learning if it believes that its performance is poorly monitored.
So, these three factors - attitude towards a certain behavior, subjective norms and perceived control, combined together, determine a person's intention to act in one way or another. As noted, these factors vary from case to case. In general, the theory of planned behavior can be useful for predicting behavior in many cases. This is especially true for behavior that is really thought out and planned.
On the other hand, the emergence of a spontaneous attitude does not involve thinking, and sometimes the connection between attitude and behavior is also spontaneous. At present, researchers are actively searching in the study of the relationship between attitude and behavior, considering various factors and circumstances accompanying this.
